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Economic value added or economic profit is the difference between revenues and costs,where costs include not only expenses, but also cost of capital.

Economic Profit
Net Operating Profit after Taxes (NOPAT)
Cash Operating Taxes
Invested Capital
Cost of Capital
Economic Spread
Economic Profit Margin

International Business Machines Corp., economic profit calculation

USD $ in millions

	12 months ended	Dec 31, 2017	Dec 31, 2016	Dec 31, 2015	Dec 31, 2014	Dec 31, 2013
	Net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT)¹
	Cost of capital²
	Invested capital³

	Economic profit⁴

Based on: 10-K (filing date: 2018-02-27), 10-K (filing date: 2017-02-28), 10-K (filing date: 2016-02-23), 10-K (filing date: 2015-02-24), 10-K (filing date: 2014-02-25).

2017 Calculations

¹ NOPAT. See Details »

² Cost of capital. See Details »

³ Invested capital. See Details »

⁴ Economic profit = NOPAT – Cost of capital × Invested capital
= hidden – hidden × hidden = hidden

Item	Description	The company
Economic profit	Economic profit is a measure of corporate performance computed by taking the spread between the return on invested capital and the cost of capital, and multiplying by the invested capital.	International Business Machines Corp.’s economic profit declined from 2015 to 2016 and from 2016 to 2017.

International Business Machines Corp., NOPAT calculation

USD $ in millions

	12 months ended	Dec 31, 2017	Dec 31, 2016	Dec 31, 2015	Dec 31, 2014	Dec 31, 2013
	Net income attributable to IBM
	Deferred income tax expense (benefit)¹
	Increase (decrease) in allowances for doubtful notes and accounts receivable²
	Increase (decrease) in deferred income³
	Increase (decrease) in product warranty liability⁴
	Increase (decrease) in equity equivalents⁵
	Interest expense
	Interest expense, operating lease obligations⁶
	Adjusted interest expense
	Tax benefit of interest expense⁷
	Adjusted interest expense, after taxes⁸
	(Gain) loss on marketable securities
	Investment income, before taxes
	Tax expense (benefit) of investment income⁹
	Investment income, after taxes¹⁰
	(Income) loss from discontinued operations, net of tax¹¹
	Net income (loss) attributable to noncontrolling interest
	Net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT)

Based on: 10-K (filing date: 2018-02-27), 10-K (filing date: 2017-02-28), 10-K (filing date: 2016-02-23), 10-K (filing date: 2015-02-24), 10-K (filing date: 2014-02-25).

2017 Calculations

¹ Elimination of deferred tax expense. See Details »

² Addition of increase (decrease) in allowances for doubtful notes and accounts receivable.

³ Addition of increase (decrease) in deferred income.

⁴ Addition of increase (decrease) in product warranty liability.

⁵ Addition of increase (decrease) in equity equivalents to net income attributable to IBM.

⁶ Addition of interest expense on capitalized operating leases. See Details »

⁷ Tax benefit of interest expense = Adjusted interest expense × Statutory income tax rate
= hidden × 35.00% = hidden

⁸ Addition of after taxes interest expense to net income attributable to IBM.

⁹ Tax expense (benefit) of investment income = Investment income, before tax × Statutory income tax rate
= hidden × 35.00% = hidden

¹⁰ Elimination of after taxes investment income.

¹¹ Elimination of discontinued operations.

Item	Description	The company
NOPAT	Net operating profit after taxes is income from operations, but after removement of taxes calculated on cash basis that are relevant to operating income.	International Business Machines Corp.’s NOPAT declined from 2015 to 2016 and from 2016 to 2017.

International Business Machines Corp., cash operating taxes calculation

USD $ in millions

	12 months ended	Dec 31, 2017	Dec 31, 2016	Dec 31, 2015	Dec 31, 2014	Dec 31, 2013
	Provision for income taxes
	Less: Deferred income tax expense (benefit)
	Add: Tax savings from interest expense
	Less: Tax imposed on investment income
	Cash operating taxes

Based on: 10-K (filing date: 2018-02-27), 10-K (filing date: 2017-02-28), 10-K (filing date: 2016-02-23), 10-K (filing date: 2015-02-24), 10-K (filing date: 2014-02-25).

Item	Description	The company
Cash operating taxes	Cash operating taxes are estimated by adjusting income tax expense for changes in deferred taxes and tax benefit from the interest deduction.	International Business Machines Corp.’s cash operating taxes declined from 2015 to 2016 but then increased from 2016 to 2017 exceeding 2015 level.

International Business Machines Corp., invested capital calculation (financing approach)

USD $ in millions

		Dec 31, 2017	Dec 31, 2016	Dec 31, 2015	Dec 31, 2014	Dec 31, 2013
	Short-term debt
	Long-term debt
	PV of operating lease payments¹
	Total reported debt & leases
	Total IBM stockholders’ equity
	Net deferred tax (assets) liabilities²
	Allowances for doubtful notes and accounts receivable³
	Deferred income⁴
	Product warranty liability⁵
	Equity equivalents⁶
	Accumulated other comprehensive (income) loss, net of tax⁷
	Noncontrolling interests
	Adjusted total IBM stockholders’ equity
	Marketable securities⁸
	Invested capital

Based on: 10-K (filing date: 2018-02-27), 10-K (filing date: 2017-02-28), 10-K (filing date: 2016-02-23), 10-K (filing date: 2015-02-24), 10-K (filing date: 2014-02-25).

¹ Addition of capitalized operating leases. See Details »

² Elimination of deferred taxes from assets and liabilities. See Details »

³ Addition of allowance for doubtful accounts receivable.

⁴ Addition of deferred income.

⁵ Addition of product warranty liability.

⁶ Addition of equity equivalents to total IBM stockholders’ equity.

⁷ Removal of accumulated other comprehensive income.

⁸ Subtraction of marketable securities.

Item	Description	The company
Invested capital	Capital is an approximation of the economic book value of all cash invested in going-concern business activities.	International Business Machines Corp.’s invested capital increased from 2015 to 2016 and from 2016 to 2017.

International Business Machines Corp., cost of capital calculations


Equity²	÷	=	×		=
Debt³	÷	=	×	× (1 – 35.00%)	=
PV of operating lease payments⁴	÷	=	×	× (1 – 35.00%)	=
Total:

Based on: 10-K (filing date: 2018-02-27).

¹ USD $ in millions

² Equity. See Details »

³ Debt. See Details »