Economic Value Added (EVA)
EVA is registered trademark of Stern Stewart.
Economic value added or economic profit is the difference between revenues and costs,where costs include not only expenses, but also cost of capital.
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Merck & Co. Inc. pages available for free this week:
- Statement of Comprehensive Income
- Balance Sheet: Liabilities and Stockholders’ Equity
- Common-Size Balance Sheet: Assets
- Analysis of Solvency Ratios
- Analysis of Long-term (Investment) Activity Ratios
- Enterprise Value to FCFF (EV/FCFF)
- Price to FCFE (P/FCFE)
- Current Ratio since 2005
- Price to Earnings (P/E) since 2005
- Price to Sales (P/S) since 2005
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Economic Profit
Merck & Co. Inc., economic profit calculation
US$ in millions
| 12 months ended: | Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | Dec 31, 2020 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT)1 | ||||||
| Cost of capital2 | ||||||
| Invested capital3 | ||||||
| Economic profit4 | ||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 NOPAT. See details »
2 Cost of capital. See details »
3 Invested capital. See details »
4 2024 Calculation
Economic profit = NOPAT – Cost of capital × Invested capital
= – × =
The analysis of the annual financial data reveals notable fluctuations in key financial indicators over the five-year period.
- Net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT)
- The NOPAT experienced substantial growth from 2020 to 2022, nearly doubling from 6,669 million US dollars in 2020 to 14,154 million US dollars in 2022. However, there was a sharp decline to a negative value of -714 million US dollars in 2023, indicating an operational loss during that year. This was followed by a strong recovery in 2024, reaching 16,744 million US dollars, the highest value in the observed period.
- Cost of capital
- The cost of capital showed a gradual increase from 7.4% in 2020 to 7.9% in 2023, indicating a slightly rising expense of financing invested capital. In 2024, this rate slightly decreased to 7.71%, suggesting a minor improvement in capital efficiency or cost conditions.
- Invested capital
- Invested capital rose steadily over the period. Starting at 57,182 million US dollars in 2020, it increased to 73,942 million US dollars in 2022, before declining somewhat in 2023 to 69,966 million US dollars. In 2024, invested capital again increased to 79,426 million US dollars, marking the highest reported level. This indicates ongoing investment activities with some temporary contraction in 2023.
- Economic profit
- Economic profit mirrored the trend seen in NOPAT. It increased significantly from 2,439 million US dollars in 2020 to a peak of 8,324 million US dollars in 2022. In 2023, there was a significant negative turn with economic profit falling to -6,244 million US dollars, reflecting a period in which returns likely did not cover the cost of invested capital. In 2024, economic profit rebounded strongly to 10,624 million US dollars, surpassing all previous years.
Overall, the data indicates strong operational and economic profitability growth through 2022, a pronounced downturn in 2023 marked by negative profitability and economic profit, and a subsequent recovery to record highs in 2024. The cost of capital followed a relatively stable, modest upward trend with a slight decline in the final year. Invested capital consistently increased with a brief contraction in 2023, suggesting continued capital deployment aligned with fluctuating profitability.
Net Operating Profit after Taxes (NOPAT)
Merck & Co. Inc., NOPAT calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 Elimination of deferred tax expense. See details »
2 Addition of increase (decrease) in allowance for doubtful accounts.
3 Addition of increase (decrease) in LIFO reserve. See details »
4 Addition of increase (decrease) in restructuring reserves.
5 Addition of increase (decrease) in equity equivalents to net income attributable to Merck & Co., Inc..
6 2024 Calculation
Interest expense on capitalized operating leases = Operating lease liability × Discount rate
= × =
7 2024 Calculation
Tax benefit of interest expense = Adjusted interest expense × Statutory income tax rate
= × 21.00% =
8 Addition of after taxes interest expense to net income attributable to Merck & Co., Inc..
9 2024 Calculation
Tax expense (benefit) of investment income = Investment income, before tax × Statutory income tax rate
= × 21.00% =
10 Elimination of after taxes investment income.
11 Elimination of discontinued operations.
- Net income attributable to Merck & Co., Inc.
- The net income showed a significant increase from 7,067 million US dollars in 2020 to 13,049 million US dollars in 2021, reflecting strong profitability growth. This upward trend continued into 2022 with net income reaching 14,519 million US dollars. However, there is a notable decrease in 2023, with net income sharply dropping to 365 million US dollars. The data shows a strong recovery in 2024, with net income rebounding to 17,117 million US dollars, the highest figure in the observed period.
- Net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT)
- The NOPAT followed a similar pattern to net income. It increased substantially from 6,669 million US dollars in 2020 to 13,349 million in 2021 and then experienced a slight rise to 14,154 million in 2022. In 2023, NOPAT turned negative, registering a loss of 714 million US dollars, indicating operational challenges or extraordinary costs during that year. By 2024, NOPAT recovered strongly to 16,744 million US dollars, surpassing all previous years except 2024 net income.
- Overall Trends and Observations
- Both profitability indicators demonstrate strong performance growth in the initial years from 2020 to 2022. The year 2023 stands out as an anomaly with both net income and NOPAT declining sharply, with NOPAT even becoming negative, suggesting operational difficulties or exceptional adverse events during that period. The rapid recovery in 2024 indicates effective measures to restore profitability and operational efficiency.
Cash Operating Taxes
Merck & Co. Inc., cash operating taxes calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
- Taxes on income from continuing operations
- The amount decreased from 1709 million US dollars in 2020 to 1521 million US dollars in 2021, followed by an increase to 1918 million US dollars in 2022. It then dropped to 1512 million US dollars in 2023 before rising significantly to 2803 million US dollars in 2024. This indicates a fluctuating pattern with a notable peak in 2024.
- Cash operating taxes
- There was a sharp decline from 2510 million US dollars in 2020 to 1553 million US dollars in 2021. Subsequently, cash operating taxes increased substantially to 3760 million in 2022, with a slight decrease to 3497 million in 2023, and then rose again to 4246 million US dollars in 2024. Overall, the data reflects considerable volatility with a general upward trend after 2021.
Invested Capital
Merck & Co. Inc., invested capital calculation (financing approach)
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 Addition of capitalized operating leases.
2 Elimination of deferred taxes from assets and liabilities. See details »
3 Addition of allowance for doubtful accounts receivable.
4 Addition of LIFO reserve. See details »
5 Addition of restructuring reserves.
6 Addition of equity equivalents to total Merck & Co., Inc. stockholders’ equity.
7 Removal of accumulated other comprehensive income.
8 Subtraction of construction in progress.
9 Subtraction of investments in debt and publicly traded equity securities.
The analysis of the financial data over the five-year period reveals several notable trends in debt levels, stockholders’ equity, and invested capital.
- Total reported debt & leases
- The total reported debt and leases show a fluctuating pattern. Starting at US$33,453 million in 2020, the amount increased slightly to US$34,631 million in 2021, then decreased to US$31,985 million in 2022. However, it rose again in the subsequent years, reaching US$36,268 million in 2023 and US$38,270 million in 2024. Overall, despite a dip in 2022, debt levels exhibit a general upward trajectory by the end of the period.
- Total Merck & Co., Inc. stockholders’ equity
- Stockholders’ equity experienced significant variation across the years. It increased substantially from US$25,317 million in 2020 to US$38,184 million in 2021, and further to US$45,991 million in 2022. A decline was observed in 2023, where equity dropped to US$37,581 million, before rising sharply again to US$46,313 million in 2024. This pattern suggests some volatility, but with an overall growth trend in shareholders' equity.
- Invested capital
- The invested capital consistently grew from US$57,182 million in 2020 to US$70,735 million in 2021, and then to US$73,942 million in 2022. A decrease occurred in 2023, moving down to US$69,966 million, followed by a recovery and substantial increase to US$79,426 million in 2024. The invested capital thus shows growth overall, tempered by a temporary decline in 2023.
In summary, the financial data indicate a generally growing capital base characterized by increasing equity and invested capital over the five years, despite fluctuations in 2023. Total debt and leases also follow an upward trend overall, with a marked increase particularly in the last two years. The fluctuations in 2023 across all three measures may suggest temporary financial adjustments or external factors impacting the company during that period.
Cost of Capital
Merck & Co. Inc., cost of capital calculations
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Loans payable and long-term debt, including current portion3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Loans payable and long-term debt, including current portion. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Loans payable and long-term debt, including current portion3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Loans payable and long-term debt, including current portion. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Loans payable and long-term debt, including current portion3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Loans payable and long-term debt, including current portion. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Loans payable and long-term debt, including current portion3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Loans payable and long-term debt, including current portion. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Loans payable and long-term debt, including current portion3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Loans payable and long-term debt, including current portion. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
Economic Spread Ratio
Merck & Co. Inc., economic spread ratio calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | Dec 31, 2020 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | ||||||
| Invested capital2 | ||||||
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic spread ratio3 | ||||||
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Spread Ratio, Competitors4 | ||||||
| AbbVie Inc. | ||||||
| Amgen Inc. | ||||||
| Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. | ||||||
| Danaher Corp. | ||||||
| Eli Lilly & Co. | ||||||
| Gilead Sciences Inc. | ||||||
| Johnson & Johnson | ||||||
| Pfizer Inc. | ||||||
| Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc. | ||||||
| Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. | ||||||
| Vertex Pharmaceuticals Inc. | ||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 Invested capital. See details »
3 2024 Calculation
Economic spread ratio = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Invested capital
= 100 × ÷ =
4 Click competitor name to see calculations.
Over the observed five-year period, the company displayed significant fluctuations in economic profit, invested capital, and the economic spread ratio, indicating varying performance levels and capital efficiency.
- Economic Profit
- The economic profit experienced a sharp increase from 2,439 million US dollars in 2020 to 8,081 million US dollars in 2021, followed by a marginal increase to 8,324 million in 2022. However, 2023 saw a notable reversal, with economic profit turning negative to -6,244 million US dollars. The trend recovered strongly in 2024, reaching a peak of 10,624 million US dollars, the highest in the period analyzed.
- Invested Capital
- Invested capital progressively increased from 57,182 million US dollars in 2020 to 73,942 million in 2022, indicating capital expansion efforts or acquisitions. However, a slight decline occurred in 2023, bringing the figure down to 69,966 million. This was followed by a renewed increase to 79,426 million US dollars in 2024, the highest value noted in the dataset. The fluctuations suggest strategic adjustments in capital allocation or divestitures during the period.
- Economic Spread Ratio
- The economic spread ratio paralleled the trend in economic profit, starting at 4.27% in 2020 and experiencing a substantial increase to above 11% in both 2021 and 2022. The ratio then sharply declined to -8.92% in 2023, reflecting the economic profit loss that year. In 2024, the ratio rebounded significantly to 13.38%, indicating improved efficiency in generating returns over the cost of capital and a strong financial performance following the previous year's downturn.
In summary, the company demonstrated resilient financial performance despite a severe setback in 2023, recovering swiftly by 2024 with strengthened profitability and capital efficiency. The pattern suggests successful management responses to adverse conditions and an overall positive trajectory in economic profit generation relative to invested capital.
Economic Profit Margin
Merck & Co. Inc., economic profit margin calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | Dec 31, 2020 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | ||||||
| Sales | ||||||
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic profit margin2 | ||||||
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Profit Margin, Competitors3 | ||||||
| AbbVie Inc. | ||||||
| Amgen Inc. | ||||||
| Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. | ||||||
| Danaher Corp. | ||||||
| Eli Lilly & Co. | ||||||
| Gilead Sciences Inc. | ||||||
| Johnson & Johnson | ||||||
| Pfizer Inc. | ||||||
| Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc. | ||||||
| Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. | ||||||
| Vertex Pharmaceuticals Inc. | ||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 2024 Calculation
Economic profit margin = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Sales
= 100 × ÷ =
3 Click competitor name to see calculations.
- Sales Trend
- Sales have shown a steady increase over the five-year period. Starting from approximately 48.0 billion US dollars in 2020, sales increased marginally in 2021, followed by a significant jump in 2022. The upward trend continued in 2023 and 2024, reaching over 64.1 billion US dollars by the end of 2024.
- Economic Profit Analysis
- The economic profit exhibited considerable volatility during the analyzed period. From 2.4 billion US dollars in 2020, economic profit surged to over 8.0 billion in 2021 and slightly increased in 2022. However, it sharply declined into negative territory in 2023, registering a loss of approximately 6.2 billion US dollars, before rebounding strongly to 10.6 billion US dollars in 2024.
- Economic Profit Margin Patterns
- Economic profit margin followed a pattern similar to economic profit in absolute terms. Starting at just over 5% in 2020, it peaked at about 16.6% in 2021 before slightly declining to 14.0% in 2022. The margin then dropped to a negative 10.4% in 2023, demonstrating a period of reduced profitability or potential losses relative to sales. It recovered to approximately 16.6% in 2024, exceeding previous years' margins.
- Overall Insights
- The financial data indicate strong sales growth that supports increasing scale. Despite this growth, profitability metrics show significant fluctuations, particularly the economic profit and its margin in 2023. The sharp downturn in 2023 suggests an adverse event or operational challenge that affected profitability sharply despite strong sales. The subsequent recovery in 2024 signals a possible resolution of these challenges or improved operational efficiency. The company’s ability to restore and surpass previous profit levels after the dip demonstrates resilience and potential for sustained profitability in future periods.