Economic Value Added (EVA)
EVA is registered trademark of Stern Stewart.
Economic value added or economic profit is the difference between revenues and costs,where costs include not only expenses, but also cost of capital.
Economic Profit
Pfizer Inc., economic profit calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 NOPAT. See details »
2 Cost of capital. See details »
3 Invested capital. See details »
4 2025 Calculation
Economic profit = NOPAT – Cost of capital × Invested capital
= 7,193 – 8.80% × 139,753 = -5,104
The financial performance between 2021 and 2025 is characterized by a sharp transition from substantial value creation to a period of sustained economic loss. While the initial period showed a significant surge in operating profitability, a subsequent contraction in earnings coupled with an expanded capital base resulted in negative economic profit from 2023 through 2025.
- Net Operating Profit After Taxes (NOPAT)
- Profitability exhibited extreme volatility. NOPAT rose from 18,394 million US$ in 2021 to a peak of 31,018 million US$ in 2022. This was followed by a severe decline in 2023, where NOPAT dropped to -1,277 million US$. Although a recovery occurred in 2024 and 2025, with values stabilizing around 7,374 million US$ and 7,193 million US$ respectively, these figures represent a significant reduction compared to the 2021-2022 levels.
- Invested Capital and Cost of Capital
- Invested capital showed a general upward trajectory, increasing from 87,670 million US$ in 2021 to a peak of 154,882 million US$ in 2023. Despite a moderate reduction in 2024, the capital base remained elevated at 139,753 million US$ by 2025. During this same period, the cost of capital remained relatively stable, fluctuating narrowly between 8.62% and 9.99%.
- Economic Profit Analysis
- The combination of declining operating profits and an increased capital base led to a deterioration in economic profit. After reaching a high of 19,951 million US$ in 2022, economic profit shifted to a deep deficit of -14,632 million US$ in 2023. While the deficit narrowed in 2024, the company continued to experience negative economic profit through 2025, ending at -5,104 million US$. This indicates that the returns generated from operations were insufficient to cover the cost of the invested capital during the final three years of the analyzed period.
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Net Operating Profit after Taxes (NOPAT)
Pfizer Inc., NOPAT calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Elimination of deferred tax expense. See details »
2 Addition of increase (decrease) in allowance for doubtful accounts.
3 Addition of increase (decrease) in restructuring accruals.
4 Addition of increase (decrease) in equity equivalents to net income attributable to Pfizer Inc. common shareholders.
5 2025 Calculation
Interest expense on capitalized operating leases = Operating lease liability × Discount rate
= 2,621 × 3.80% = 100
6 2025 Calculation
Tax benefit of interest expense = Adjusted interest expense × Statutory income tax rate
= 2,771 × 21.00% = 582
7 Addition of after taxes interest expense to net income attributable to Pfizer Inc. common shareholders.
8 2025 Calculation
Tax expense (benefit) of investment income = Investment income, before tax × Statutory income tax rate
= 543 × 21.00% = 114
9 Elimination of after taxes investment income.
10 Elimination of discontinued operations.
Net income attributable to Pfizer Inc. common shareholders and Net Operating Profit After Taxes (NOPAT) exhibited significant fluctuations between 2021 and 2025. While net income demonstrated an initial increase followed by a substantial decline, NOPAT mirrored this pattern with even more pronounced volatility, including a negative value in 2023.
- Net Income Trend
- Net income attributable to Pfizer Inc. common shareholders increased from US$21,979 million in 2021 to US$31,372 million in 2022, representing a substantial year-over-year growth. However, a dramatic decrease was observed in 2023, falling to US$2,119 million. A partial recovery occurred in 2024, with net income reaching US$8,031 million, followed by a slight decrease to US$7,771 million in 2025.
- NOPAT Trend
- NOPAT followed a similar trajectory to net income, increasing from US$18,394 million in 2021 to US$31,018 million in 2022. A significant shift occurred in 2023, with NOPAT becoming negative at US$-1,277 million. A recovery was then seen in 2024, rising to US$7,374 million, and continuing to US$7,193 million in 2025. The magnitude of the decline and subsequent recovery in NOPAT was greater than that observed in net income.
- Relationship between Net Income and NOPAT
- While both metrics generally moved in the same direction, the divergence in 2023 is noteworthy. The substantial negative NOPAT value suggests that operating profits, after accounting for taxes, were insufficient to cover the cost of capital employed during that year, despite a positive, albeit significantly reduced, net income. This indicates that factors beyond core operational profitability, such as financing or non-operating items, played a larger role in determining net income in 2023.
The period between 2024 and 2025 shows relative stabilization in both metrics, although NOPAT remains considerably lower than its peak in 2022. Further investigation would be required to understand the underlying drivers of these fluctuations and their implications for the company’s long-term financial performance.
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Cash Operating Taxes
Pfizer Inc., cash operating taxes calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
The provision for taxes on income exhibits significant volatility over the observed period. Beginning at US$1,852 million in 2021, it increased substantially to US$3,328 million in 2022 before experiencing a dramatic shift to a benefit of negative US$1,115 million in 2023. This benefit continued, albeit at a smaller magnitude, in 2024 (-US$28 million) and 2025 (-US$267 million). In contrast, cash operating taxes demonstrate a more stable, though fluctuating, pattern.
- Cash Operating Taxes Trend
- Cash operating taxes increased from US$6,137 million in 2021 to US$7,967 million in 2022, representing a substantial rise. A subsequent decrease was noted in 2023, falling to US$2,113 million. Values then recovered somewhat in 2024 and 2025, reaching US$2,426 million and US$2,334 million respectively. While fluctuating, the values in 2024 and 2025 remain considerably below the 2021 and 2022 levels.
The divergence between the provision for taxes on income and cash operating taxes is noteworthy. The large benefit recorded in the provision for taxes in 2023, 2024, and 2025 suggests the utilization of tax loss carryforwards or other tax planning strategies, resulting in a reduced accounting expense despite continued cash outflows for taxes. The cash operating taxes, while decreasing from 2022 to 2023, remained positive throughout the period, indicating actual cash payments were made to tax authorities even when the accounting provision reflected a benefit.
- Relationship between Provision and Cash Taxes
- The difference between the provision for taxes on income and cash operating taxes widened considerably in 2023, 2024, and 2025. This indicates a growing deferral of taxable income or an increasing benefit from tax credits or loss carryforwards. The substantial difference highlights the impact of non-cash tax items on the reported income tax expense.
The observed trends suggest a complex tax position, potentially involving significant tax planning and the utilization of deferred tax assets. Further investigation into the specific drivers of the tax benefit and the nature of the deferred tax items would be beneficial for a complete understanding of the company’s tax strategy and its impact on financial performance.
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Invested Capital
Pfizer Inc., invested capital calculation (financing approach)
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Addition of capitalized operating leases.
2 Elimination of deferred taxes from assets and liabilities. See details »
3 Addition of allowance for doubtful accounts receivable.
4 Addition of restructuring accruals.
5 Addition of equity equivalents to total Pfizer Inc. shareholders’ equity.
6 Removal of accumulated other comprehensive income.
7 Subtraction of construction in progress.
8 Subtraction of marketable securities.
The reported invested capital demonstrates a clear increasing trend over the observed period, followed by a stabilization and slight increase. A significant rise is noted between 2021 and 2023, while subsequent years show a more moderate pattern. This analysis details the observed movements in invested capital alongside its constituent components: total reported debt & leases and total shareholders’ equity.
- Invested Capital Trend
- Invested capital increased substantially from US$87,670 million in 2021 to US$154,882 million in 2023, representing a growth of approximately 76.8%. This growth slowed considerably in 2024, with invested capital decreasing to US$135,342 million. A modest increase to US$139,753 million was observed in 2025. The 2024 decrease suggests a potential shift in capital allocation strategy or a reduction in capital-intensive projects.
- Debt & Leases
- Total reported debt & leases decreased from US$41,395 million in 2021 to US$39,046 million in 2022. However, a substantial increase occurred in 2023, reaching US$75,041 million. This was followed by a decrease to US$66,993 million in 2024 and a slight increase to US$67,416 million in 2025. The 2023 surge in debt likely contributed significantly to the overall increase in invested capital during that year.
- Shareholders’ Equity
- Total shareholders’ equity increased from US$77,201 million in 2021 to US$95,661 million in 2022, indicating strong equity growth. A decrease was then observed in 2023, falling to US$89,014 million, and continued to decline in 2024 and 2025, reaching US$88,203 million and US$86,476 million respectively. This consistent decline in shareholders’ equity over the latter part of the period partially offset the impact of increased debt on invested capital.
The interplay between debt and equity significantly influences the overall invested capital. While debt increased substantially in 2023, the subsequent decrease in shareholders’ equity moderated the growth in invested capital in 2024 and 2025. The stabilization of invested capital in the later years suggests a balancing act between debt financing and equity returns.
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Cost of Capital
Pfizer Inc., cost of capital calculations
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 154,098) | 154,098) | ÷ | 219,873) | = | 0.70 | 0.70 | × | 11.05% | = | 7.74% | ||
| Debt3 | 63,154) | 63,154) | ÷ | 219,873) | = | 0.29 | 0.29 | × | 4.50% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 1.02% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 2,621) | 2,621) | ÷ | 219,873) | = | 0.01 | 0.01 | × | 3.80% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.04% | ||
| Total: | 219,873) | 1.00 | 8.80% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 147,918) | 147,918) | ÷ | 211,506) | = | 0.70 | 0.70 | × | 11.05% | = | 7.73% | ||
| Debt3 | 60,946) | 60,946) | ÷ | 211,506) | = | 0.29 | 0.29 | × | 4.49% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 1.02% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 2,642) | 2,642) | ÷ | 211,506) | = | 0.01 | 0.01 | × | 3.70% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.04% | ||
| Total: | 211,506) | 1.00 | 8.78% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 155,569) | 155,569) | ÷ | 230,072) | = | 0.68 | 0.68 | × | 11.05% | = | 7.47% | ||
| Debt3 | 71,350) | 71,350) | ÷ | 230,072) | = | 0.31 | 0.31 | × | 4.54% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 1.11% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 3,153) | 3,153) | ÷ | 230,072) | = | 0.01 | 0.01 | × | 3.80% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.04% | ||
| Total: | 230,072) | 1.00 | 8.62% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 237,687) | 237,687) | ÷ | 273,849) | = | 0.87 | 0.87 | × | 11.05% | = | 9.59% | ||
| Debt3 | 32,945) | 32,945) | ÷ | 273,849) | = | 0.12 | 0.12 | × | 3.97% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.38% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 3,217) | 3,217) | ÷ | 273,849) | = | 0.01 | 0.01 | × | 3.00% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.03% | ||
| Total: | 273,849) | 1.00 | 9.99% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 258,449) | 258,449) | ÷ | 305,649) | = | 0.85 | 0.85 | × | 11.05% | = | 9.34% | ||
| Debt3 | 44,241) | 44,241) | ÷ | 305,649) | = | 0.14 | 0.14 | × | 3.79% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.43% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 2,959) | 2,959) | ÷ | 305,649) | = | 0.01 | 0.01 | × | 2.80% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.02% | ||
| Total: | 305,649) | 1.00 | 9.80% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
Economic Spread Ratio
Pfizer Inc., economic spread ratio calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2025 | Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | (5,104) | (4,514) | (14,632) | 19,951) | 9,807) | |
| Invested capital2 | 139,753) | 135,342) | 154,882) | 110,746) | 87,670) | |
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic spread ratio3 | -3.65% | -3.34% | -9.45% | 18.02% | 11.19% | |
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Spread Ratio, Competitors4 | ||||||
| AbbVie Inc. | 0.77% | -2.16% | -3.88% | 5.54% | 4.92% | |
| Amgen Inc. | 6.29% | -0.50% | 2.32% | 6.84% | 6.84% | |
| Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. | 5.72% | -21.96% | 1.60% | -1.15% | 1.14% | |
| Danaher Corp. | -10.70% | -10.87% | -11.64% | -6.63% | -5.80% | |
| Eli Lilly & Co. | 30.21% | 14.55% | 1.48% | 8.58% | 10.25% | |
| Gilead Sciences Inc. | 12.67% | -10.42% | 2.91% | -0.22% | 6.80% | |
| Johnson & Johnson | 11.61% | 1.94% | 0.09% | 5.35% | 10.41% | |
| Merck & Co. Inc. | 10.55% | 13.42% | -8.88% | 11.31% | 11.47% | |
| Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc. | 13.87% | 16.69% | 13.49% | 18.86% | 62.61% | |
| Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. | -7.45% | -8.25% | -8.72% | -6.97% | -4.95% | |
| Vertex Pharmaceuticals Inc. | 20.86% | -22.79% | 11.16% | 13.91% | 15.12% | |
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 Invested capital. See details »
3 2025 Calculation
Economic spread ratio = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Invested capital
= 100 × -5,104 ÷ 139,753 = -3.65%
4 Click competitor name to see calculations.
The financial performance exhibits a significant transition from a period of value creation to a period of value destruction. A strong upward trajectory in economic profit and spread was observed between 2021 and 2022, followed by a sharp reversal starting in 2023 and a subsequent period of stabilization in negative territory.
- Economic Profit Trends
- Economic profit peaked in 2022 at 19,951 million US$, more than doubling the 2021 value of 9,807 million US$. This was followed by a severe contraction in 2023, where economic profit dropped to negative 14,632 million US$. Although a partial recovery occurred in 2024, with the deficit narrowing to 4,514 million US$, the profit returned to a decline in 2025, ending at negative 5,104 million US$.
- Invested Capital Movements
- Invested capital underwent a period of rapid expansion from 2021 to 2023, increasing from 87,670 million US$ to a peak of 154,882 million US$. A subsequent contraction occurred in 2024, bringing the total down to 135,342 million US$, before a slight increase to 139,753 million US$ was recorded in 2025. This pattern suggests a significant capital deployment phase that peaked in 2023.
- Economic Spread Ratio Analysis
- The economic spread ratio shows a high degree of volatility, shifting from a peak of 18.02% in 2022 to a sharp low of negative 9.45% in 2023. The ratio improved slightly to negative 3.34% in 2024 and remained largely stagnant at negative 3.65% in 2025. The persistence of negative spread ratios from 2023 through 2025 indicates that the returns generated on invested capital failed to meet the cost of that capital during this timeframe.
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Economic Profit Margin
Pfizer Inc., economic profit margin calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2025 | Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | (5,104) | (4,514) | (14,632) | 19,951) | 9,807) | |
| Revenues | 62,579) | 63,627) | 59,553) | 101,175) | 82,145) | |
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic profit margin2 | -8.16% | -7.09% | -24.57% | 19.72% | 11.94% | |
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Profit Margin, Competitors3 | ||||||
| AbbVie Inc. | 0.77% | -2.66% | -4.87% | 7.84% | 8.39% | |
| Amgen Inc. | 10.49% | -0.99% | 6.03% | 10.96% | 11.33% | |
| Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. | 7.03% | -28.49% | 2.40% | -1.79% | 1.98% | |
| Danaher Corp. | -32.80% | -33.55% | -38.21% | -16.47% | -14.49% | |
| Eli Lilly & Co. | 22.99% | 11.56% | 1.27% | 7.30% | 9.45% | |
| Gilead Sciences Inc. | 18.75% | -16.14% | 4.94% | -0.37% | 12.03% | |
| Johnson & Johnson | 17.03% | 2.32% | 0.10% | 6.41% | 10.89% | |
| Merck & Co. Inc. | 15.90% | 16.62% | -10.33% | 14.10% | 16.66% | |
| Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc. | 12.81% | 14.64% | 12.31% | 18.99% | 42.34% | |
| Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. | -15.74% | -15.78% | -17.40% | -12.85% | -10.06% | |
| Vertex Pharmaceuticals Inc. | 18.40% | -18.71% | 14.97% | 20.52% | 18.74% | |
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 2025 Calculation
Economic profit margin = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Revenues
= 100 × -5,104 ÷ 62,579 = -8.16%
3 Click competitor name to see calculations.
The analysis of economic value creation reveals a period of significant volatility and a subsequent transition from value generation to value destruction between 2021 and 2025. A peak in performance occurred in 2022, followed by a sharp contraction in 2023 from which the company has not fully recovered in terms of economic profit.
- Revenue Trends
- Revenues exhibited a sharp upward trajectory from 2021 to a peak of 101,175 million US$ in 2022. This was followed by a substantial decline in 2023, where revenues dropped to 59,553 million US$. For the remainder of the period, revenue remained relatively stagnant, fluctuating slightly around the 63,000 million US$ mark in 2024 and 2025.
- Economic Profit Volatility
- Economic profit mirrored the revenue trend, growing from 9,807 million US$ in 2021 to a high of 19,951 million US$ in 2022. A severe reversal occurred in 2023, with economic profit falling to negative 14,632 million US$. While the absolute loss narrowed to negative 4,514 million US$ in 2024, a slight deterioration followed in 2025, ending the period at negative 5,104 million US$.
- Economic Profit Margin Analysis
- The economic profit margin highlights a dramatic shift in capital efficiency. The margin expanded from 11.94% in 2021 to 19.72% in 2022, indicating that the company was generating returns well above its cost of capital. However, the margin collapsed to negative 24.57% in 2023, signaling a period where the cost of capital significantly exceeded operating gains. Despite a recovery to negative 7.09% in 2024, the margin slipped again to negative 8.16% in 2025, confirming a sustained inability to create economic value over the final three years of the analyzed period.
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