Economic Value Added (EVA)
EVA is registered trademark of Stern Stewart.
Economic value added or economic profit is the difference between revenues and costs,where costs include not only expenses, but also cost of capital.
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- Cash Flow Statement
- Common-Size Balance Sheet: Assets
- Analysis of Solvency Ratios
- Analysis of Short-term (Operating) Activity Ratios
- Common Stock Valuation Ratios
- Selected Financial Data since 2005
- Return on Equity (ROE) since 2005
- Total Asset Turnover since 2005
- Price to Earnings (P/E) since 2005
- Price to Sales (P/S) since 2005
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Economic Profit
Alphabet Inc., economic profit calculation
US$ in millions
| 12 months ended: | Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | Dec 31, 2020 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT)1 | ||||||
| Cost of capital2 | ||||||
| Invested capital3 | ||||||
| Economic profit4 | ||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 NOPAT. See details »
2 Cost of capital. See details »
3 Invested capital. See details »
4 2024 Calculation
Economic profit = NOPAT – Cost of capital × Invested capital
= – × =
- Net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT)
- The NOPAT experienced a significant increase from 41,262 million USD in 2020 to 77,747 million USD in 2021. This was followed by a decrease to 52,578 million USD in 2022. Subsequently, it rose again to 65,370 million USD in 2023 and reached its highest value of 93,781 million USD in 2024. Overall, there is a volatile but upward trend with a notable rebound after the 2022 dip.
- Cost of capital
- The cost of capital showed slight fluctuations but remained relatively stable over the five years, ranging narrowly from 14.53% to 14.64%. There was a minimal upward trend, indicating a marginal increase in the capital charge over the evaluated period.
- Invested capital
- The invested capital showed a consistent upward trend from 145,844 million USD in 2020 to 202,355 million USD in 2022. Although there was a decrease in 2023 to 189,779 million USD, it increased again sharply to 227,952 million USD in 2024, marking the highest level during the period. The general trajectory indicates ongoing capital investment growth with a temporary decline in 2023.
- Economic profit
- Economic profit demonstrated considerable volatility. It more than doubled from 20,070 million USD in 2020 to 52,717 million USD in 2021, fell significantly to 23,162 million USD in 2022, then increased to 37,675 million USD in 2023 and substantially to 60,415 million USD in 2024. This pattern suggests fluctuating returns above the cost of capital, with strong recovery and growth following the 2022 low point.
Net Operating Profit after Taxes (NOPAT)
Alphabet Inc., NOPAT calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 Elimination of deferred tax expense. See details »
2 Addition of increase (decrease) in allowance for credit losses on accounts receivable.
3 Addition of increase (decrease) in deferred revenue.
4 Addition of increase (decrease) in equity equivalents to net income.
5 2024 Calculation
Interest expense on capitalized operating leases = Operating lease liability × Discount rate
= × =
6 2024 Calculation
Tax benefit of interest expense = Adjusted interest expense × Statutory income tax rate
= × 21.00% =
7 Addition of after taxes interest expense to net income.
8 2024 Calculation
Tax expense (benefit) of investment income = Investment income, before tax × Statutory income tax rate
= × 21.00% =
9 Elimination of after taxes investment income.
The financial data indicates a fluctuating yet generally positive trend in profitability over the observed periods. Net income shows substantial growth from 40,269 million US dollars at the end of 2020 to 76,033 million in 2021, marking a significant increase. However, there is a notable decline in 2022 to 59,972 million, followed by a recovery in 2023 to 73,795 million and further growth reaching 100,118 million by the end of 2024. This pattern suggests some volatility but an overall upward trajectory in net income over the five-year span.
Similarly, the Net Operating Profit After Taxes (NOPAT) mirrors this trend with initial growth from 41,262 million US dollars in 2020 to 77,747 million in 2021. This is followed by a decrease in 2022 to 52,578 million, reflecting a sharper drop compared to net income. The subsequent years in 2023 and 2024 show a recovery and increase to 65,370 million and 93,781 million respectively. This indicates a similar pattern of variability but with a strong recuperation in operating profitability after taxes.
- Overall Trends
- Both net income and NOPAT experienced high growth in the early years, a decline in the middle period (2022), and recovery with substantial growth towards the end of the timeline (2023-2024).
- Volatility and Recovery
- The mid-period decrease in both measures suggests external or internal challenges impacting profitability, but the rebound in later years indicates effective management or favorable market conditions leading to enhanced earnings.
- Profitability Insights
- The data suggests that despite periods of decreased profitability, the company's financial health and earnings capacity improved significantly by 2024, reaching the highest recorded values in both net income and NOPAT within the given timeframe.
Cash Operating Taxes
Alphabet Inc., cash operating taxes calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
The analysis of the financial data indicates significant fluctuations and trends in the provisions and payments related to income taxes over the examined five-year period.
- Provision for Income Taxes
- This item shows an overall increasing trend from 2020 to 2024. It more than doubled from approximately $7.8 billion in 2020 to nearly $14.7 billion in 2021, followed by a decline in 2022 to about $11.4 billion. Subsequently, the provision slightly increased in 2023 to approximately $11.9 billion and then escalated sharply to almost $19.7 billion in 2024. This pattern suggests volatility in tax provisions with a recent marked increase.
- Cash Operating Taxes
- Cash taxes paid display a steady and significant upward trend throughout the entire period. Starting at around $6.0 billion in 2020, the cash operating taxes rose sharply to about $12.6 billion in 2021 and continued to climb to $19.5 billion in 2022. The 2023 figure slightly declined to approximately $19.3 billion but rebounded in 2024 to reach its highest value, about $24.4 billion. This demonstrates a consistent increase in actual cash outflows for tax payments, with minor fluctuation in 2023.
In summary, while provision for income taxes has shown volatility with notable increases and decreases, the cash operating taxes have generally increased robustly over the period. The substantial rise in cash paid taxes indicates increasing tax obligations or payments, which may reflect higher profitability, changes in tax regulation, or shifts in the company’s taxable income profile. The divergence and patterns between provisions and cash taxes merit further examination to understand their drivers and implications on financial strategy and tax planning.
Invested Capital
Alphabet Inc., invested capital calculation (financing approach)
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 Addition of capitalized operating leases.
2 Elimination of deferred taxes from assets and liabilities. See details »
3 Addition of allowance for doubtful accounts receivable.
4 Addition of deferred revenue.
5 Addition of equity equivalents to stockholders’ equity.
6 Removal of accumulated other comprehensive income.
7 Subtraction of assets not yet in service.
8 Subtraction of marketable securities.
- Total reported debt & leases
-
The total reported debt and leases have exhibited a gradual increase over the observed period. Starting from approximately 27.9 billion US dollars at the end of 2020, this figure rose steadily to reach about 30.4 billion dollars by the end of 2024. The increase is relatively moderate and consistent, without significant fluctuations, indicating stable debt management practices.
- Stockholders’ equity
-
Stockholders’ equity has shown a strong upward trend throughout the years. Beginning at roughly 222.5 billion dollars in 2020, equity increased each year, reaching approximately 325.1 billion dollars by the end of 2024. The growth is particularly notable in the last two years, suggesting either retained earnings accumulation, additional equity infusions, or positive revaluation impacts. This trend points to a strengthening financial position from an equity perspective.
- Invested capital
-
Invested capital experienced initial growth from 145.8 billion dollars in 2020 to over 202.3 billion dollars in 2022. However, there was a decline in 2023, dropping to about 189.8 billion dollars, followed by a substantial rise back to around 228.0 billion dollars in 2024. This pattern indicates some volatility in capital investment or asset base management, with a brief contraction before a strong recovery in the most recent year.
- General observations
-
Overall, the financial data indicates increasing capital structure strength with growing stockholders’ equity outpacing the moderate rise in debt and leases. The company's invested capital shows some fluctuations but trends upwards over the longer term. The stable debt levels alongside rising equity suggest improving solvency and financial robustness. The recent increase in invested capital may reflect new investments or asset expansion initiatives.
Cost of Capital
Alphabet Inc., cost of capital calculations
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
Economic Spread Ratio
Alphabet Inc., economic spread ratio calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | Dec 31, 2020 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | ||||||
| Invested capital2 | ||||||
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic spread ratio3 | ||||||
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Spread Ratio, Competitors4 | ||||||
| Comcast Corp. | ||||||
| Meta Platforms Inc. | ||||||
| Netflix Inc. | ||||||
| Take-Two Interactive Software Inc. | ||||||
| Walt Disney Co. | ||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 Invested capital. See details »
3 2024 Calculation
Economic spread ratio = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Invested capital
= 100 × ÷ =
4 Click competitor name to see calculations.
- Economic Profit
- The economic profit shows considerable fluctuation over the five-year period. It increased significantly from 20,070 million USD in 2020 to 52,717 million USD in 2021. However, there was a sharp decline in 2022 to 23,162 million USD, followed by a recovery in 2023 with 37,675 million USD, and further growth to 60,415 million USD in 2024. Overall, this indicates a volatile yet upward trend in economic profit by the end of the period.
- Invested Capital
- The invested capital displays a steady growth trend over the years. Starting at 145,844 million USD in 2020, it rose to 171,408 million USD in 2021 and further to 202,355 million USD in 2022. Although there is a slight decline to 189,779 million USD in 2023, the invested capital recovers strongly in 2024, reaching a peak of 227,952 million USD. This expansion in invested capital reflects ongoing investment activities or asset accumulation.
- Economic Spread Ratio
- The economic spread ratio exhibits notable volatility akin to economic profit. It surged from 13.76% in 2020 to a peak of 30.76% in 2021, then dropped sharply to 11.45% in 2022. Subsequently, it rebounded to 19.85% in 2023 and rose further to 26.5% by 2024. This pattern suggests fluctuations in the firm's return on invested capital relative to its cost, with the latter years indicating strengthening profitability.
Economic Profit Margin
Alphabet Inc., economic profit margin calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | Dec 31, 2020 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | ||||||
| Revenues | ||||||
| Add: Increase (decrease) in deferred revenue | ||||||
| Adjusted revenues | ||||||
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic profit margin2 | ||||||
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Profit Margin, Competitors3 | ||||||
| Comcast Corp. | ||||||
| Meta Platforms Inc. | ||||||
| Netflix Inc. | ||||||
| Take-Two Interactive Software Inc. | ||||||
| Walt Disney Co. | ||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 2024 Calculation
Economic profit margin = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Adjusted revenues
= 100 × ÷ =
3 Click competitor name to see calculations.
- Adjusted Revenues
- Adjusted revenues demonstrate a consistent upward trend over the five-year period. Starting from approximately 183.3 billion US dollars in 2020, revenues increased significantly to 258.4 billion US dollars in 2021. The growth continued each subsequent year, reaching 283.5 billion in 2022, 307.9 billion in 2023, and further accelerating to 351.0 billion US dollars by the end of 2024. This pattern indicates strong and steady expansion in the company’s sales or services.
- Economic Profit
- Economic profit values fluctuated notably across the years. In 2020, the economic profit was 20.1 billion US dollars, which more than doubled to 52.7 billion US dollars in 2021, reflecting a sharp improvement in value creation. However, in 2022, economic profit declined sharply to 23.2 billion US dollars, signaling a temporary reduction in profitability. The figure rebounded to 37.7 billion in 2023 and then increased further to 60.4 billion US dollars in 2024, ultimately reaching its highest level in the observed period. These variations suggest volatility in profitability, albeit with a positive upward trajectory overall.
- Economic Profit Margin
- The economic profit margin followed a pattern similar to the economic profit figures. Beginning at 10.95% in 2020, the margin improved significantly to 20.4% in 2021, indicating a more efficient conversion of revenues into economic profit. In 2022, the margin fell to 8.17%, marking a period of reduced profitability efficiency. Subsequently, this margin improved to 12.23% in 2023 and further increased to 17.21% by 2024. Despite the setback in 2022, the margin trend suggests strengthening profitability in recent years.
- Summary
- The data indicates robust revenue growth paired with fluctuations in economic profit and margin. After a strong spike in 2021, both economic profit and its margin decreased in 2022 but recovered in the following years, achieving new highs by 2024. The overall trend points to improving operating performance and economic value generation, supported by steadily increasing adjusted revenues.