Economic Value Added (EVA)
EVA is registered trademark of Stern Stewart.
Economic value added or economic profit is the difference between revenues and costs,where costs include not only expenses, but also cost of capital.
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- Income Statement
- Balance Sheet: Liabilities and Stockholders’ Equity
- Analysis of Solvency Ratios
- Analysis of Short-term (Operating) Activity Ratios
- Enterprise Value (EV)
- Enterprise Value to EBITDA (EV/EBITDA)
- Dividend Discount Model (DDM)
- Return on Equity (ROE) since 2005
- Price to Earnings (P/E) since 2005
- Price to Book Value (P/BV) since 2005
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Economic Profit
Union Pacific Corp., economic profit calculation
US$ in millions
| 12 months ended: | Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | Dec 31, 2020 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT)1 | ||||||
| Cost of capital2 | ||||||
| Invested capital3 | ||||||
| Economic profit4 | ||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 NOPAT. See details »
2 Cost of capital. See details »
3 Invested capital. See details »
4 2024 Calculation
Economic profit = NOPAT – Cost of capital × Invested capital
= – × =
- Net Operating Profit After Taxes (NOPAT)
- The net operating profit after taxes demonstrates an overall upward trend from 2020 through 2024. Starting at $6,650 million in 2020, it increased consistently to reach $8,288 million in 2022. However, there is a slight decline observed in 2023 to $7,558 million, followed by a modest recovery to $7,772 million in 2024. This indicates a positive growth in operating profit over the longer term, despite some volatility in the latter years.
- Cost of Capital
- The cost of capital shows a gradual increase over the period. Beginning at 13.6% in 2020, it rose slightly each year, reaching 14.04% by 2024. The incremental rise in cost of capital suggests increasing financing costs or perceived risk associated with invested capital during this time frame.
- Invested Capital
- The invested capital has exhibited a steady upward trend across the five years. Starting at $58,340 million in 2020, it remained relatively stable in 2021 but increased annually thereafter, ending at $62,044 million in 2024. This steady growth implies ongoing investments or capital deployment in assets to support business operations or expansion.
- Economic Profit
- Economic profit, calculated as NOPAT minus the cost of capital times invested capital, fluctuates significantly throughout the period. It is negative in 2020 and 2021 at -$1,284 million and -$367 million respectively, turns positive at $130 million in 2022, then declines sharply again becoming negative in 2023 (-$1,009 million) and 2024 (-$942 million). The volatility in economic profit despite generally increasing NOPAT suggests that the rise in cost of capital and invested capital may be eroding value creation for shareholders in recent years.
Net Operating Profit after Taxes (NOPAT)
Union Pacific Corp., NOPAT calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 Elimination of deferred tax expense. See details »
2 Addition of increase (decrease) in allowance for doubtful accounts.
3 Addition of increase (decrease) in equity equivalents to net income.
4 2024 Calculation
Interest expense on capitalized operating leases = Operating lease liability × Discount rate
= × =
5 2024 Calculation
Tax benefit of interest expense = Adjusted interest expense × Statutory income tax rate
= × 21.00% =
6 Addition of after taxes interest expense to net income.
7 2024 Calculation
Tax expense (benefit) of investment income = Investment income, before tax × Statutory income tax rate
= × 21.00% =
8 Elimination of after taxes investment income.
- Net Income
- Net income exhibited a generally upward trend over the five-year period, starting at 5,349 million US dollars in 2020 and increasing to 6,747 million US dollars in 2024. The most significant increase occurred between 2020 and 2021, with an approximate rise of 1,174 million US dollars. Following this, growth continued but at a slower pace, with a slight dip observed in 2023 where net income decreased to 6,379 million US dollars from the previous year's 6,998 million. However, net income recovered in 2024, reaching 6,747 million US dollars, indicating resilience after the decline.
- Net Operating Profit After Taxes (NOPAT)
- NOPAT demonstrated a consistent growth pattern from 2020 to 2022, rising from 6,650 million US dollars to 8,288 million US dollars. This growth trend aligns with the net income increases during the same period. In 2023, NOPAT declined to 7,558 million US dollars, mirroring the reduction observed in net income, and then increased slightly to 7,772 million US dollars in 2024. Despite the drop in 2023, the overall trajectory over the five years remains positive, with a total increase of 1,122 million US dollars from 2020 to 2024.
- Comparative Insights
- Both net income and NOPAT experienced growth from 2020 through 2022, followed by a decline in 2023 and a partial recovery in 2024. The decline in 2023 in both metrics suggests operational or market challenges during that year, while the recovery in 2024 indicates an improvement in conditions or performance. The proportional differences between net income and NOPAT values suggest effective management of taxes and operating expenses over the years, with NOPAT consistently exceeding net income, reflecting the inclusion of operating-related adjustments in its calculation. Overall, the data suggest a relatively stable profitability profile with some fluctuation centered around 2023, but an overall positive trend across the observed periods.
Cash Operating Taxes
Union Pacific Corp., cash operating taxes calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
- Income Tax Expense
- The income tax expense demonstrated an overall increasing trend over the five-year period, rising from 1,631 million US dollars in 2020 to 2,047 million US dollars in 2024. There was a consistent increase from 2020 through 2022, peaking at 2,074 million US dollars in 2022. However, in 2023, a decline to 1,854 million US dollars was observed before increasing again in 2024.
- Cash Operating Taxes
- Cash operating taxes also exhibited an upward trajectory over the period under review, starting at 1,543 million US dollars in 2020 and reaching 2,285 million US dollars by 2024. The values rose steadily each year, except for a slight dip in 2023 to 2,020 million US dollars, followed by a recovery in 2024 to the highest level recorded.
- Comparative Observations
- Both income tax expense and cash operating taxes followed similar trends, including a noticeable decline in 2023 before increasing again in 2024. Cash operating taxes consistently exceeded income tax expense across all years, indicating higher actual tax outflows relative to the recorded income tax expense. The data suggest some volatility in tax-related cash flows in 2023, which may warrant further examination to understand drivers such as changes in tax payments or accounting treatments during that period.
Invested Capital
Union Pacific Corp., invested capital calculation (financing approach)
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 Addition of capitalized operating leases.
2 Elimination of deferred taxes from assets and liabilities. See details »
3 Addition of allowance for doubtful accounts receivable.
4 Addition of equity equivalents to common shareholders’ equity.
5 Removal of accumulated other comprehensive income.
6 Subtraction of construction in progress.
7 Subtraction of short-term investments.
The financial data exhibits several notable trends in debt, equity, and invested capital over the five-year period.
- Total Reported Debt & Leases
- This item showed a steady increase from 28,333 million US dollars at the end of 2020, peaking at 34,957 million in 2022. Subsequently, there is a declining trend in the following years, with debt and leases reducing to 32,463 million by the end of 2024. This pattern suggests an initial phase of increased leverage followed by a strategic reduction in debt levels.
- Common Shareholders' Equity
- The equity value demonstrates a declining trend from 16,958 million in 2020 to 12,163 million in 2022, indicating a reduction in shareholders' equity through those years. However, this trend reverses post-2022, with equity rising to 16,890 million by the end of 2024. The recovery in equity after 2022 points to improved retained earnings, capital injections, or other equity-enhancing actions.
- Invested Capital
- Invested capital remains relatively stable across the period, fluctuating within a range from approximately 58,241 million to 62,044 million. A slight upward trajectory is observable, with the figure reaching its highest point in 2024. This stability, combined with minor growth, implies consistent investment in operational or capital assets without significant expansion or contraction.
Overall, the data reflects a phase of increased leverage and declining equity until 2022, followed by a period of deleveraging and equity restoration. Invested capital maintained relative steadiness with slight growth, suggesting ongoing investment continuity. These dynamics may signal a strategic financial repositioning focused on balancing debt reduction with equity strengthening while sustaining capital investment levels.
Cost of Capital
Union Pacific Corp., cost of capital calculations
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Debt3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Debt3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Debt3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Debt3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Debt3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
Economic Spread Ratio
Union Pacific Corp., economic spread ratio calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | Dec 31, 2020 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | ||||||
| Invested capital2 | ||||||
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic spread ratio3 | ||||||
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Spread Ratio, Competitors4 | ||||||
| FedEx Corp. | ||||||
| Uber Technologies Inc. | ||||||
| United Airlines Holdings Inc. | ||||||
| United Parcel Service Inc. | ||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 Invested capital. See details »
3 2024 Calculation
Economic spread ratio = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Invested capital
= 100 × ÷ =
4 Click competitor name to see calculations.
The financial data indicates fluctuations in the economic profit over the five-year period, with notable variations that suggest an unstable profitability situation. The economic profit started at a negative value of -1284 million US dollars, improved significantly in 2021, turning less negative at -367 million US dollars, and further rebounded to a positive 130 million US dollars by 2022. However, the trend reversed afterwards, with economic profit declining sharply to -1009 million US dollars in 2023 and marginally improving to -942 million US dollars in 2024, yet still showing negative profitability.
Regarding invested capital, there is a consistent upward trend over the years. Starting at 58,340 million US dollars in 2020, invested capital marginally decreased to 58,241 million US dollars in 2021. Subsequently, it increased steadily each year, reaching 62,044 million US dollars by the end of 2024. This gradual growth suggests continued capital investment despite the fluctuations in economic profit.
The economic spread ratio aligns closely with the movements in economic profit, reflecting profitability relative to invested capital. The ratio was negative throughout the majority of the period, beginning at -2.2% in 2020, improving markedly to -0.63% in 2021 and briefly turning positive at 0.22% in 2022. However, the ratio reverted to more negative values in the subsequent years, falling to -1.64% in 2023 and slightly recovering to -1.52% in 2024. This pattern further demonstrates variability in generating returns above the cost of capital, with only a brief period of positive economic spread.
- Economic Profit Trends
- Fluctuated significantly over the years, with an initial negative value, improvement to positive in the mid-period, followed by a return to negative values.
- Invested Capital Trends
- Gradually increased over the period, indicating ongoing investments despite profitability challenges.
- Economic Spread Ratio Trends
- Mirrored the economic profit pattern, mostly negative indicating returns below cost of capital, with a brief positive spread in 2022.
- Overall Insights
- The company experienced challenges in maintaining consistent economic profitability, despite increasing invested capital. The brief positive economic spread suggests potential for value creation that was not sustained in the longer term.
Economic Profit Margin
Union Pacific Corp., economic profit margin calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | Dec 31, 2020 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | ||||||
| Operating revenues | ||||||
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic profit margin2 | ||||||
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Profit Margin, Competitors3 | ||||||
| FedEx Corp. | ||||||
| Uber Technologies Inc. | ||||||
| United Airlines Holdings Inc. | ||||||
| United Parcel Service Inc. | ||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 2024 Calculation
Economic profit margin = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Operating revenues
= 100 × ÷ =
3 Click competitor name to see calculations.
- Operating Revenues
- The operating revenues demonstrate a general upward trend from 2020 to 2024. There is a significant increase from 19,533 million US dollars in 2020 to 24,875 million US dollars in 2022. After 2022, revenues slightly decrease to 24,119 million in 2023 but recover modestly to 24,250 million in 2024, indicating relative stabilization at a high level compared to 2020.
- Economic Profit
- The economic profit shows considerable volatility over the five-year period. Starting from a negative 1,284 million US dollars in 2020, the economic profit losses reduce substantially to a negative 367 million in 2021. It then turns positive to reach 130 million US dollars in 2022, marking the only positive economic profit year within the observed period. However, economic profit deteriorates again in 2023 and 2024, with losses recorded at 1,009 million and 942 million US dollars respectively, signifying an unfavorable trend after a brief recovery.
- Economic Profit Margin
- The economic profit margin mirrors the economic profit's pattern, reflecting fluctuating profitability relative to operating revenues. The margin improves from -6.57% in 2020 to near breakeven at 0.52% in 2022, corresponding with the positive economic profit of that year. Subsequently, it declines again to -4.18% in 2023 and remains negative at -3.88% in 2024, indicating decreased efficiency or increased costs impacting economic profitability despite stable revenues.
- Summary Insights
- The financial data reveals that although operating revenues increased and largely stabilized at a higher level compared to 2020, economic profit and its margin do not follow the same upward trajectory. The temporary improvement in 2022 suggests episodic gains possibly due to cost management or other operational factors. However, the return to negative economic profit and margin in the subsequent years points to challenges in sustaining profitability despite steady revenues. This could indicate rising costs, capital charges, or other economic factors affecting the company's overall financial health. The inconsistency between revenue growth and economic profit emphasizes the need for focused attention on cost control and capital efficiency.