Economic Value Added (EVA)
EVA is registered trademark of Stern Stewart.
Economic value added or economic profit is the difference between revenues and costs,where costs include not only expenses, but also cost of capital.
Paying user area
Try for free
Caterpillar Inc. pages available for free this week:
- Analysis of Profitability Ratios
- Analysis of Short-term (Operating) Activity Ratios
- Analysis of Reportable Segments
- Selected Financial Data since 2005
- Debt to Equity since 2005
- Price to Earnings (P/E) since 2005
- Price to Operating Profit (P/OP) since 2005
- Price to Sales (P/S) since 2005
- Analysis of Revenues
- Analysis of Debt
The data is hidden behind: . Unhide it.
Get full access to the entire website from $10.42/mo, or
get 1-month access to Caterpillar Inc. for $24.99.
This is a one-time payment. There is no automatic renewal.
We accept:
Economic Profit
Caterpillar Inc., economic profit calculation
US$ in millions
| 12 months ended: | Dec 31, 2025 | Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT)1 | ||||||
| Cost of capital2 | ||||||
| Invested capital3 | ||||||
| Economic profit4 | ||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 NOPAT. See details »
2 Cost of capital. See details »
3 Invested capital. See details »
4 2025 Calculation
Economic profit = NOPAT – Cost of capital × Invested capital
= – × =
The financial trajectory from 2021 to 2025 is characterized by a persistent failure to achieve positive economic profit, indicating that the returns generated from operations consistently fell below the weighted cost of the capital employed.
- Net Operating Profit After Taxes (NOPAT)
- An upward trend was observed from 2021 through 2024, with NOPAT increasing from 6,986 million to a peak of 10,452 million. However, this growth reversed in 2025, with a decline to 9,805 million, signifying a contraction in operational profitability at the end of the analyzed period.
- Cost of Capital
- A continuous increase in the cost of capital is evident, rising from 18.41% in 2021 to 22.21% in 2025. This steady escalation raised the required return threshold, making it progressively more difficult for the entity to generate economic value.
- Invested Capital
- Invested capital remained relatively stable between 2021 and 2023, oscillating around 55 billion. A significant expansion occurred in 2024 and accelerated in 2025, reaching 64,653 million. The substantial increase in the capital base during the final year occurred without a corresponding increase in NOPAT, contributing to a decline in value creation.
- Economic Profit Trends
- Economic profit remained negative throughout the entire five-year period. A period of relative improvement was noted in 2023 and 2024, where losses narrowed to approximately -1.4 billion due to the surge in NOPAT. However, the combination of a peak cost of capital and a sharp increase in invested capital led to a severe deterioration in 2025, resulting in the period's largest economic loss of 4,553 million.
Net Operating Profit after Taxes (NOPAT)
Caterpillar Inc., NOPAT calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Elimination of deferred tax expense. See details »
2 Addition of increase (decrease) in LIFO reserve. See details »
3 Addition of increase (decrease) in product warranty liability.
4 Addition of increase (decrease) in equity equivalents to profit attributable to common stockholders.
5 2025 Calculation
Interest expense on capitalized operating leases = Operating lease liability × Discount rate
= × =
6 2025 Calculation
Tax benefit of interest expense excluding Financial Products = Adjusted interest expense excluding Financial Products × Statutory income tax rate
= × 21.00% =
7 Addition of after taxes interest expense to profit attributable to common stockholders.
8 2025 Calculation
Tax expense (benefit) of investment income = Investment income, before tax × Statutory income tax rate
= × 21.00% =
9 Elimination of after taxes investment income.
Net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT) and profit attributable to common stockholders both demonstrate a general upward trajectory over the observed period, though with some fluctuation. NOPAT increased from 2021 to 2023, experienced a slight increase from 2023 to 2024, and then decreased in 2025. Profit attributable to common stockholders follows a similar pattern.
- NOPAT Trend
- NOPAT increased from US$6,986 million in 2021 to US$7,348 million in 2022, representing a growth of approximately 5.2%. This growth continued into 2023, with NOPAT reaching US$10,002 million, a substantial increase of roughly 36.2% from the prior year. A further, albeit smaller, increase was observed in 2024, with NOPAT reaching US$10,452 million. However, NOPAT decreased to US$9,805 million in 2025, representing a decline of approximately 6.2% from 2024.
- Profit Attributable to Common Stockholders Trend
- Profit attributable to common stockholders increased from US$6,489 million in 2021 to US$6,705 million in 2022, a growth of approximately 3.3%. A significant increase was then recorded in 2023, reaching US$10,335 million, representing a growth of approximately 54.1% from 2022. This upward trend continued into 2024, with profit attributable to common stockholders reaching US$10,792 million. In 2025, profit attributable to common stockholders decreased to US$8,884 million, a decline of approximately 17.9% from 2024.
The correlation between NOPAT and profit attributable to common stockholders is strong, suggesting that changes in operating profitability directly influence the net income available to shareholders. The decrease observed in both metrics in 2025 warrants further investigation to determine the underlying causes, such as increased costs, decreased sales volume, or changes in the tax environment.
- Relationship between NOPAT and Profit
- While both metrics generally move in the same direction, NOPAT consistently exceeds profit attributable to common stockholders across all observed years. This difference likely reflects items not included in NOPAT, such as financing costs or non-operating income/expenses, which impact the final profit figure reported to common stockholders.
Cash Operating Taxes
Caterpillar Inc., cash operating taxes calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
The provision for income taxes and cash operating taxes both exhibited increasing trends from 2021 to 2023, followed by fluctuations in subsequent years. A detailed examination of these items reveals distinct patterns and potential areas for further investigation.
- Provision for Income Taxes
- The provision for income taxes increased steadily from US$1,742 million in 2021 to US$2,781 million in 2023, representing a growth of approximately 60%. In 2024, this figure decreased slightly to US$2,629 million before rising again to US$2,768 million in 2025. This suggests a correlation with overall profitability, though further analysis is needed to confirm this relationship.
- Cash Operating Taxes
- Cash operating taxes mirrored the increasing trend observed in the provision for income taxes, rising from US$2,213 million in 2021 to US$3,380 million in 2023, an increase of over 52%. A decrease was then noted in 2024 to US$3,260 million, followed by a more substantial decline to US$2,327 million in 2025. This decrease in 2025 is more pronounced than the decrease in the provision for income taxes, potentially indicating changes in deferred tax assets or liabilities, or timing differences in tax payments.
- Relationship between Provision and Cash Taxes
- In 2021 and 2022, the difference between cash operating taxes and the provision for income taxes was relatively consistent, around US$471 million and US$437 million respectively. However, this difference widened in 2023 to US$600 million, and further increased to US$631 million in 2024. The difference narrowed significantly in 2025 to US$441 million. These variations suggest changes in the timing of recognizing taxable income versus actual cash tax payments, potentially due to items like depreciation methods, tax credits, or changes in tax laws. The substantial decrease in 2025 warrants further investigation to understand the underlying drivers.
Overall, the fluctuations in both the provision for income taxes and cash operating taxes suggest a dynamic tax environment. The divergence between these two figures, particularly the significant decrease in cash operating taxes in 2025, should be examined in greater detail to assess its impact on the company’s economic value added and overall financial health.
Invested Capital
Caterpillar Inc., invested capital calculation (financing approach)
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Addition of capitalized operating leases.
2 Elimination of deferred taxes from assets and liabilities. See details »
3 Addition of LIFO reserve. See details »
4 Addition of product warranty liability.
5 Addition of equity equivalents to equity attributable to common shareholders.
6 Removal of accumulated other comprehensive income.
7 Subtraction of construction-in-process.
8 Subtraction of investments in debt and equity securities.
The invested capital of the company exhibited relative stability between 2021 and 2023, followed by increases in 2024 and 2025. A closer examination of the components reveals trends in both debt and equity financing.
- Total Debt & Leases
- Total reported debt and leases decreased from $38,431 million in 2021 to $37,572 million in 2022. A slight increase was observed in 2023, reaching $38,452 million, before continuing to rise to $39,011 million in 2024. The most significant increase occurred between 2024 and 2025, with debt and leases reaching $44,058 million. This indicates a growing reliance on debt financing in the latter period.
- Equity Attributable to Common Shareholders
- Equity attributable to common shareholders decreased from $16,484 million in 2021 to $15,869 million in 2022. A substantial increase was then recorded in 2023, reaching $19,494 million. Equity remained relatively stable in 2024 at $19,491 million, and continued to grow to $21,318 million in 2025. This suggests a strengthening of the equity base, particularly between 2022 and 2025.
- Invested Capital
- Invested capital, calculated as the sum of total debt & leases and equity attributable to common shareholders, remained relatively consistent between 2021 and 2023, fluctuating around $55.5 billion. An upward trend began in 2024, with invested capital reaching $57,519 million, and accelerated in 2025, culminating in $64,653 million. This increase in invested capital is attributable to the combined effect of rising debt and increasing equity, with debt contributing more significantly to the growth in the most recent period.
The composition of invested capital shifted over the analyzed period. While equity experienced a notable recovery and growth, the increasing proportion of debt in the capital structure from 2024 onwards warrants further investigation regarding the company’s financial leverage and associated risks.
Cost of Capital
Caterpillar Inc., cost of capital calculations
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Short-term borrowings and long-term debt3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Short-term borrowings and long-term debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Short-term borrowings and long-term debt3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Short-term borrowings and long-term debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Short-term borrowings and long-term debt3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Short-term borrowings and long-term debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Short-term borrowings and long-term debt3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Short-term borrowings and long-term debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | ÷ | = | × | = | |||||||||
| Short-term borrowings and long-term debt3 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Operating lease liability4 | ÷ | = | × | × (1 – 21.00%) | = | ||||||||
| Total: | |||||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Short-term borrowings and long-term debt. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
Economic Spread Ratio
Caterpillar Inc., economic spread ratio calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2025 | Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | ||||||
| Invested capital2 | ||||||
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic spread ratio3 | ||||||
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Spread Ratio, Competitors4 | ||||||
| Boeing Co. | ||||||
| Eaton Corp. plc | ||||||
| GE Aerospace | ||||||
| Honeywell International Inc. | ||||||
| Lockheed Martin Corp. | ||||||
| RTX Corp. | ||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 Invested capital. See details »
3 2025 Calculation
Economic spread ratio = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Invested capital
= 100 × ÷ =
4 Click competitor name to see calculations.
The financial performance regarding economic value added indicates a persistent inability to generate positive economic profit between 2021 and 2025. This suggests that the returns generated on the capital employed have remained consistently below the required cost of capital throughout the period analyzed.
- Economic Profit Trends
- Economic profit remained in negative territory for the entire five-year duration. A decline was observed from 2021 to 2022, reaching -3,526 million US dollars. A notable recovery occurred in 2023 and 2024, where losses narrowed to -1,399 million and -1,416 million US dollars, respectively. However, this trend reversed sharply in 2025, with economic profit falling to -4,553 million US dollars, representing the most significant deficit in the analyzed timeframe.
- Invested Capital Evolution
- The capital base experienced a general upward trajectory. After a slight dip in 2022 to 54,801 million US dollars, invested capital grew steadily, reaching 57,519 million US dollars in 2024. A substantial increase was recorded in 2025, with invested capital rising to 64,653 million US dollars. This growth in the capital base occurred despite the continuing negative economic profit.
- Economic Spread Ratio Analysis
- The economic spread ratio mirrors the volatility of the economic profit, remaining negative across all periods. The ratio deteriorated to -6.43% in 2022 before improving to -2.52% in 2023 and -2.46% in 2024. In 2025, the ratio suffered a severe contraction to -7.04%. This decline is attributable to the combined effect of a widening economic profit deficit and a significantly expanded base of invested capital.
Economic Profit Margin
Caterpillar Inc., economic profit margin calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2025 | Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | ||||||
| Sales of Machinery, Power & Energy | ||||||
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic profit margin2 | ||||||
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Profit Margin, Competitors3 | ||||||
| Boeing Co. | ||||||
| Eaton Corp. plc | ||||||
| GE Aerospace | ||||||
| Honeywell International Inc. | ||||||
| Lockheed Martin Corp. | ||||||
| RTX Corp. | ||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 2025 Calculation
Economic profit margin = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Sales of Machinery, Power & Energy
= 100 × ÷ =
3 Click competitor name to see calculations.
An analysis of the economic value added indicates a persistent inability to generate positive economic profit from 2021 through 2025. While sales figures exhibited a general growth trend, the economic profit margin remained negative throughout the period, culminating in a significant decline in the final year.
- Economic Profit Trends
- Economic profit remained consistently negative across the five-year period. A period of relative improvement was observed between 2022 and 2023, where losses narrowed from 3,526 million to 1,399 million. However, this recovery was reversed by 2025, when economic profit fell to its lowest level of 4,553 million.
- Revenue Performance
- Sales of Machinery, Power & Energy demonstrated a general upward trajectory. Revenue increased from 48,188 million in 2021 to a peak of 63,980 million in 2025, notwithstanding a slight contraction in 2024. The expansion in sales volume did not result in a transition toward positive economic profit.
- Economic Profit Margin Analysis
- The economic profit margin showed a narrowing trend from 2021 (-6.73%) to 2023 (-2.19%), suggesting a period of increased efficiency in capital utilization. This trend stabilized in 2024 at -2.31% before deteriorating sharply to -7.12% in 2025. The divergence in 2025 is significant, as the widest margin deficit in the period occurred simultaneously with the highest recorded sales, indicating that the cost of capital significantly exceeded the net operating profit after tax during that year.