Dividend Discount Model (DDM)
In discounted cash flow (DCF) valuation techniques the value of the stock is estimated based upon present value of some measure of cash flow. Dividends are the cleanest and most straightforward measure of cash flow because these are clearly cash flows that go directly to the investor.
Intrinsic Stock Value (Valuation Summary)
Norfolk Southern Corp., dividends per share (DPS) forecast
US$
| Year | Value | DPSt or Terminal value (TVt) | Calculation | Present value at 16.64% |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | DPS01 | 4.16 | ||
| 1 | DPS1 | 4.76 | = 4.16 × (1 + 14.33%) | 4.08 |
| 2 | DPS2 | 5.44 | = 4.76 × (1 + 14.45%) | 4.00 |
| 3 | DPS3 | 6.24 | = 5.44 × (1 + 14.58%) | 3.93 |
| 4 | DPS4 | 7.15 | = 6.24 × (1 + 14.70%) | 3.87 |
| 5 | DPS5 | 8.21 | = 7.15 × (1 + 14.82%) | 3.80 |
| 5 | Terminal value (TV5) | 518.36 | = 8.21 × (1 + 14.82%) ÷ (16.64% – 14.82%) | 240.11 |
| Intrinsic value of Norfolk Southern Corp. common stock (per share) | $259.79 | |||
| Current share price | $262.53 | |||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 DPS0 = Sum of the last year dividends per share of Norfolk Southern Corp. common stock. See details »
Disclaimer!
Valuation is based on standard assumptions. There may exist specific factors relevant to stock value and omitted here. In such a case, the real stock value may differ significantly form the estimated. If you want to use the estimated intrinsic stock value in investment decision making process, do so at your own risk.
Required Rate of Return (r)
| Assumptions | ||
| Rate of return on LT Treasury Composite1 | RF | 4.86% |
| Expected rate of return on market portfolio2 | E(RM) | 13.54% |
| Systematic risk of Norfolk Southern Corp. common stock | βNSC | 1.36 |
| Required rate of return on Norfolk Southern Corp. common stock3 | rNSC | 16.64% |
1 Unweighted average of bid yields on all outstanding fixed-coupon U.S. Treasury bonds neither due or callable in less than 10 years (risk-free rate of return proxy).
3 rNSC = RF + βNSC [E(RM) – RF]
= 4.86% + 1.36 [13.54% – 4.86%]
= 16.64%
Dividend Growth Rate (g)
Dividend growth rate (g) implied by PRAT model
Norfolk Southern Corp., PRAT model
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2020-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2019-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2018-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2017-12-31).
2021 Calculations
1 Retention rate = (Net income – Dividends on Common Stock) ÷ Net income
= (3,005 – 1,028) ÷ 3,005
= 0.66
2 Profit margin = 100 × Net income ÷ Railway operating revenues
= 100 × 3,005 ÷ 11,142
= 26.97%
3 Asset turnover = Railway operating revenues ÷ Total assets
= 11,142 ÷ 38,493
= 0.29
4 Financial leverage = Total assets ÷ Stockholders’ equity
= 38,493 ÷ 13,641
= 2.82
5 g = Retention rate × Profit margin × Asset turnover × Financial leverage
= 0.68 × 29.22% × 0.29 × 2.49
= 14.33%
Dividend growth rate (g) implied by Gordon growth model
g = 100 × (P0 × r – D0) ÷ (P0 + D0)
= 100 × ($262.53 × 16.64% – $4.16) ÷ ($262.53 + $4.16)
= 14.82%
where:
P0 = current price of share of Norfolk Southern Corp. common stock
D0 = the last year dividends per share of Norfolk Southern Corp. common stock
r = required rate of return on Norfolk Southern Corp. common stock
Dividend growth rate (g) forecast
Norfolk Southern Corp., H-model
| Year | Value | gt |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | g1 | 14.33% |
| 2 | g2 | 14.45% |
| 3 | g3 | 14.58% |
| 4 | g4 | 14.70% |
| 5 and thereafter | g5 | 14.82% |
where:
g1 is implied by PRAT model
g5 is implied by Gordon growth model
g2, g3 and g4 are calculated using linear interpoltion between g1 and g5
Calculations
g2 = g1 + (g5 – g1) × (2 – 1) ÷ (5 – 1)
= 14.33% + (14.82% – 14.33%) × (2 – 1) ÷ (5 – 1)
= 14.45%
g3 = g1 + (g5 – g1) × (3 – 1) ÷ (5 – 1)
= 14.33% + (14.82% – 14.33%) × (3 – 1) ÷ (5 – 1)
= 14.58%
g4 = g1 + (g5 – g1) × (4 – 1) ÷ (5 – 1)
= 14.33% + (14.82% – 14.33%) × (4 – 1) ÷ (5 – 1)
= 14.70%