Economic Value Added (EVA)
EVA is registered trademark of Stern Stewart.
Economic value added or economic profit is the difference between revenues and costs,where costs include not only expenses, but also cost of capital.
Economic Profit
Linde plc, economic profit calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 NOPAT. See details »
2 Cost of capital. See details »
3 Invested capital. See details »
4 2025 Calculation
Economic profit = NOPAT – Cost of capital × Invested capital
= 7,182 – 13.91% × 80,195 = -3,976
The financial performance, as measured by economic profit, indicates a consistent shortfall between returns generated and the cost of capital over the five-year period. While net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT) demonstrates an increasing trend, it has not been sufficient to overcome the cost of capital applied to the growing invested capital base.
- Net Operating Profit After Taxes (NOPAT)
- NOPAT exhibits a positive trend, increasing from US$3,800 million in 2021 to US$7,182 million in 2025. The most significant increase occurred between 2022 and 2023, with a rise of approximately 66.7%. Growth moderated in subsequent years, suggesting a potential stabilization of operational profitability.
- Cost of Capital
- The cost of capital remained relatively stable throughout the period, fluctuating between 13.91% and 14.21%. A slight increase is observed from 2021 to 2023, followed by a modest decrease in 2024 and 2025. These fluctuations appear minor and do not significantly impact the overall economic profit calculation.
- Invested Capital
- Invested capital consistently increased over the five-year period, rising from US$72,560 million in 2021 to US$80,195 million in 2025. This growth in capital employed contributes to the increasing absolute value of the economic loss, despite improvements in NOPAT.
- Economic Profit
- Economic profit remained negative throughout the analyzed period, ranging from -US$6,329 million in 2022 to -US$3,736 million in 2024. While the magnitude of the economic loss decreased between 2021 and 2024, it increased slightly in 2025 to -US$3,976 million. This indicates that, despite growing NOPAT, the returns generated are still insufficient to cover the cost of the capital invested. The reduction in economic loss between 2021 and 2024 suggests improving efficiency in capital utilization, but the 2025 result indicates this trend may be slowing.
In summary, the company demonstrates increasing operational profitability and a growing capital base. However, the cost of capital remains substantial enough to result in a consistent economic loss. Future performance will depend on the ability to either generate higher returns on invested capital or reduce the cost of that capital.
AI Ask an analyst for more
Net Operating Profit after Taxes (NOPAT)
Linde plc, NOPAT calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Elimination of deferred tax expense. See details »
2 Addition of increase (decrease) in allowance for expected credit losses.
3 Addition of increase (decrease) in cost reduction programs.
4 Addition of increase (decrease) in equity equivalents to net income, Linde plc.
5 2025 Calculation
Interest expense on capitalized operating leases = Operating lease liability × Discount rate
= 866 × 4.46% = 39
6 2025 Calculation
Tax benefit of interest expense = Adjusted interest expense × Statutory income tax rate
= 503 × 21.00% = 106
7 Addition of after taxes interest expense to net income, Linde plc.
8 2025 Calculation
Tax expense (benefit) of investment income = Investment income, before tax × Statutory income tax rate
= 209 × 21.00% = 44
9 Elimination of after taxes investment income.
10 Elimination of discontinued operations.
Net income and net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT) exhibited positive trends over the five-year period. Both metrics demonstrate consistent growth, with a notable acceleration in later years. The difference between net income and NOPAT remains relatively small throughout the period, suggesting limited impact from financing or non-operating activities.
- NOPAT Trend
- NOPAT increased from US$3,800 million in 2021 to US$7,182 million in 2025. The growth was moderate between 2021 and 2022, with an increase of approximately 0.87%. A significant jump occurred between 2022 and 2023, with NOPAT rising to US$6,386 million, representing a growth of approximately 66.7%. This upward trajectory continued from 2023 to 2025, with increases of approximately 6.8% and 12.5% respectively.
- Relationship between Net Income and NOPAT
- The values for net income and NOPAT are closely aligned across all reported years. In 2021, NOPAT was US$3,800 million, compared to net income of US$3,826 million. This difference of US$26 million remained relatively consistent in 2022 (US$3,833 million NOPAT vs. US$4,147 million net income, a difference of US$314 million). The gap widened slightly in 2023 (US$6,386 million NOPAT vs. US$6,199 million net income) and continued to widen in 2024 (US$6,814 million NOPAT vs. US$6,565 million net income) and 2025 (US$7,182 million NOPAT vs. US$6,898 million net income). These differences suggest increasing non-operating items or financing costs as a percentage of overall profitability.
The consistent growth in NOPAT indicates improving core operational profitability. The increasing divergence between NOPAT and net income warrants further investigation to understand the drivers of these differences, potentially related to interest expense, taxes, or other non-operating items. Overall, the trend in NOPAT is positive and suggests strong underlying business performance.
AI Ask an analyst for more
Cash Operating Taxes
Linde plc, cash operating taxes calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
The provision for income taxes and cash operating taxes both demonstrate an increasing trend over the five-year period. However, the magnitude of increase differs between the two items, and both exhibit some fluctuation in growth rate.
- Provision for Income Taxes
- The provision for income taxes increased from US$1,262 million in 2021 to US$1,814 million in 2023, representing a substantial rise. Growth slowed in 2024 to US$2,002 million, and then decreased slightly to US$1,989 million in 2025. This suggests a potential stabilization or minor reduction in tax obligations after a period of significant growth.
- Cash Operating Taxes
- Cash operating taxes exhibited a consistent increase throughout the period, rising from US$1,537 million in 2021 to US$2,516 million in 2025. The increase from 2021 to 2022 was US$298 million, while the increase from 2024 to 2025 was US$311 million, indicating a relatively consistent absolute increase in cash tax payments. The growth rate, however, decelerated slightly over time.
- Relationship between Provision and Cash Taxes
- Cash operating taxes consistently exceeded the provision for income taxes in each year. The difference between the two items varied between approximately US$275 million and US$527 million. This difference suggests the presence of timing differences between accounting income and taxable income, or potentially deferred tax assets/liabilities. The gap narrowed slightly between 2021 and 2023, then widened again in 2024 and 2025, indicating a changing dynamic in these timing differences.
Overall, the company experienced increasing tax obligations, both from an accounting perspective (provision for income taxes) and a cash flow perspective (cash operating taxes). The consistent difference between the two items warrants further investigation to understand the underlying causes and potential implications for future cash flows and financial reporting.
AI Ask an analyst for more
Invested Capital
Linde plc, invested capital calculation (financing approach)
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Addition of capitalized operating leases.
2 Elimination of deferred taxes from assets and liabilities. See details »
3 Addition of allowance for doubtful accounts receivable.
4 Addition of cost reduction programs.
5 Addition of equity equivalents to total Linde plc shareholders’ equity.
6 Removal of accumulated other comprehensive income.
Analysis of the presented financial information reveals trends in the company’s capital structure and invested capital over a five-year period. Total reported debt and leases demonstrate a consistent upward trajectory, while total shareholders’ equity exhibits more fluctuation. Invested capital generally increases throughout the period, though its growth appears to be influenced by both debt and equity movements.
- Debt & Leases
- Total reported debt and leases increased steadily from US$15,216 million in 2021 to US$28,069 million in 2025. The rate of increase accelerated in later years, with a substantial rise between 2024 and 2025. This suggests an increasing reliance on debt financing.
- Shareholders’ Equity
- Total Linde plc shareholders’ equity decreased from US$44,035 million in 2021 to US$38,092 million in 2024, before experiencing a slight increase to US$38,245 million in 2025. This initial decline could be attributed to share repurchases, dividend payments, or unrealized losses. The stabilization in 2025 suggests a potential bottoming out of equity reduction.
- Invested Capital
- Invested capital remained relatively stable between 2021 and 2023, fluctuating around US$72-73 billion. A noticeable increase occurred in 2024, reaching US$74,884 million, and continued into 2025, reaching US$80,195 million. This growth in invested capital correlates with the increasing debt levels, indicating that debt financing is contributing to capital expansion. The slight dip in invested capital between 2021 and 2022 is likely due to the decrease in shareholders’ equity offsetting the increase in debt.
The combined effect of rising debt and fluctuating equity results in a generally increasing trend in invested capital. The company appears to be actively employing debt to fund its operations and growth initiatives, particularly in the later years of the observed period. Further investigation into the specific uses of the increased debt would be beneficial to assess the efficiency and effectiveness of these capital allocation decisions.
AI Ask an analyst for more
Cost of Capital
Linde plc, cost of capital calculations
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 235,529) | 235,529) | ÷ | 262,183) | = | 0.90 | 0.90 | × | 15.27% | = | 13.71% | ||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | 25,788) | 25,788) | ÷ | 262,183) | = | 0.10 | 0.10 | × | 2.42% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.19% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 866) | 866) | ÷ | 262,183) | = | 0.00 | 0.00 | × | 4.46% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.01% | ||
| Total: | 262,183) | 1.00 | 13.91% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 218,272) | 218,272) | ÷ | 239,715) | = | 0.91 | 0.91 | × | 15.27% | = | 13.90% | ||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | 20,661) | 20,661) | ÷ | 239,715) | = | 0.09 | 0.09 | × | 2.62% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.18% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 782) | 782) | ÷ | 239,715) | = | 0.00 | 0.00 | × | 4.17% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.01% | ||
| Total: | 239,715) | 1.00 | 14.09% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 217,287) | 217,287) | ÷ | 236,279) | = | 0.92 | 0.92 | × | 15.27% | = | 14.04% | ||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | 18,243) | 18,243) | ÷ | 236,279) | = | 0.08 | 0.08 | × | 2.67% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.16% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 749) | 749) | ÷ | 236,279) | = | 0.00 | 0.00 | × | 4.19% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.01% | ||
| Total: | 236,279) | 1.00 | 14.21% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 171,454) | 171,454) | ÷ | 188,442) | = | 0.91 | 0.91 | × | 15.27% | = | 13.89% | ||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | 16,267) | 16,267) | ÷ | 188,442) | = | 0.09 | 0.09 | × | 2.18% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.15% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 721) | 721) | ÷ | 188,442) | = | 0.00 | 0.00 | × | 3.26% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.01% | ||
| Total: | 188,442) | 1.00 | 14.05% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 148,891) | 148,891) | ÷ | 164,282) | = | 0.91 | 0.91 | × | 15.27% | = | 13.84% | ||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | 14,558) | 14,558) | ÷ | 164,282) | = | 0.09 | 0.09 | × | 1.48% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.10% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 833) | 833) | ÷ | 164,282) | = | 0.01 | 0.01 | × | 2.91% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.01% | ||
| Total: | 164,282) | 1.00 | 13.95% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
Economic Spread Ratio
Linde plc, economic spread ratio calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2025 | Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | (3,976) | (3,736) | (4,047) | (6,329) | (6,322) | |
| Invested capital2 | 80,195) | 74,884) | 73,409) | 72,341) | 72,560) | |
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic spread ratio3 | -4.96% | -4.99% | -5.51% | -8.75% | -8.71% | |
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Spread Ratio, Competitors4 | ||||||
| Sherwin-Williams Co. | -1.73% | -0.71% | -2.96% | -3.21% | -2.76% | |
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 Invested capital. See details »
3 2025 Calculation
Economic spread ratio = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Invested capital
= 100 × -3,976 ÷ 80,195 = -4.96%
4 Click competitor name to see calculations.
The economic spread ratio exhibited a notable improvement over the observed period, though economic profit remained negative. Invested capital generally increased throughout the timeframe. A closer examination of the economic spread ratio and its relationship to economic profit reveals key trends in the company’s financial performance.
- Economic Spread Ratio
- The economic spread ratio, representing the difference between the return on invested capital and the weighted average cost of capital, demonstrated a consistent, albeit gradual, positive trend. Starting at -8.71% in 2021, it improved to -4.96% by 2025. This indicates a narrowing gap between the company’s returns and its cost of capital. The largest single-year improvement occurred between 2022 and 2023, moving from -8.75% to -5.51%. Subsequent improvements were more modest.
- Economic Profit
- Despite the improvement in the economic spread ratio, economic profit remained negative throughout the period. While the magnitude of the loss decreased from US$6,322 million in 2021 to US$3,976 million in 2025, the company did not generate positive economic profit. The smallest loss was recorded in 2024 at US$3,736 million.
- Invested Capital
- Invested capital experienced a general upward trend, increasing from US$72,560 million in 2021 to US$80,195 million in 2025. There was a slight decrease between 2021 and 2022, but subsequent years showed consistent growth. This increase in invested capital occurred concurrently with the improvement in the economic spread ratio, suggesting that capital deployment, while increasing in absolute terms, became more efficient in generating returns relative to its cost.
In summary, the company demonstrated progress in improving its economic spread ratio, indicating enhanced efficiency in capital utilization. However, this improvement was not sufficient to generate positive economic profit during the analyzed period. The continued growth in invested capital suggests ongoing investment in the business, and future performance will depend on sustaining the trend of improving the economic spread ratio to ultimately achieve positive economic profit.
AI Ask an analyst for more
Economic Profit Margin
Linde plc, economic profit margin calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2025 | Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | (3,976) | (3,736) | (4,047) | (6,329) | (6,322) | |
| Sales | 33,986) | 33,005) | 32,854) | 33,364) | 30,793) | |
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic profit margin2 | -11.70% | -11.32% | -12.32% | -18.97% | -20.53% | |
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Profit Margin, Competitors3 | ||||||
| Sherwin-Williams Co. | -1.42% | -0.51% | -2.11% | -2.52% | -2.19% | |
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 2025 Calculation
Economic profit margin = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Sales
= 100 × -3,976 ÷ 33,986 = -11.70%
3 Click competitor name to see calculations.
The financial performance, as indicated by economic profit and its margin, demonstrates a consistent pattern of negative economic profit over the five-year period from 2021 to 2025. However, the magnitude of the economic loss appears to be decreasing, alongside an improving economic profit margin.
- Economic Profit
- Economic profit exhibits a negative value each year. The largest economic loss occurred in 2021 and 2022, at approximately US$6.3 billion. A reduction in the absolute value of the loss is observed in subsequent years, reaching US$3.7 billion in 2023, before slightly increasing to US$3.976 billion in 2025. This suggests a gradual improvement in the generation of returns exceeding the cost of capital, although profitability remains negative overall.
- Sales
- Sales revenue shows a general upward trend over the period. From US$30.793 billion in 2021, sales increased to US$33.364 billion in 2022. A slight decrease to US$32.854 billion occurred in 2023, followed by a modest increase to US$33.005 billion in 2024, and further growth to US$33.986 billion in 2025. The increasing sales figures do not fully translate into positive economic profit, indicating potential issues with cost management or capital efficiency.
- Economic Profit Margin
- The economic profit margin consistently registers as a negative percentage, reflecting the ongoing economic losses. The margin improved from -20.53% in 2021 to -18.97% in 2022. This improvement continues through 2023 and 2024, reaching -12.32% and -11.32% respectively. The rate of improvement slows in 2025, with the margin settling at -11.70%. While still negative, the trend indicates increasing efficiency in converting sales into economic profit, despite the absolute economic loss remaining substantial.
In summary, while sales are growing, the company continues to destroy economic value. The improving economic profit margin suggests that the rate of value destruction is slowing, but significant improvements in profitability are needed to achieve positive economic profit.
AI Ask an analyst for more