Economic Value Added (EVA)
EVA is registered trademark of Stern Stewart.
Economic value added or economic profit is the difference between revenues and costs,where costs include not only expenses, but also cost of capital.
Economic Profit
Linde plc, economic profit calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 NOPAT. See details »
2 Cost of capital. See details »
3 Invested capital. See details »
4 2025 Calculation
Economic profit = NOPAT – Cost of capital × Invested capital
= 7,182 – 14.03% × 80,195 = -4,070
An analysis of economic value added reveals a consistent pattern of negative economic profit over the five-year period, although a significant improvement in operational efficiency is evident. While the organization has not yet achieved a positive economic profit, the trajectory of net operating profit after taxes suggests a strategic narrowing of the gap between actual returns and the cost of capital.
- Net Operating Profit After Taxes (NOPAT)
- A substantial upward trend is observed in NOPAT, which increased from US$ 3,800 million in 2021 to US$ 7,182 million by 2025. A notable acceleration in growth occurred between 2022 and 2023, where profit rose by approximately 66%, signaling a marked improvement in core operational performance.
- Cost of Capital and Invested Capital
- The cost of capital remained relatively stable, fluctuating within a narrow range between 14.03% and 14.33%. Simultaneously, invested capital grew from US$ 72,560 million in 2021 to US$ 80,195 million in 2025. The most significant expansion in the capital base occurred in 2025, contributing to an increase in the overall capital charge.
- Economic Profit Trajectory
- Economic profit remained negative throughout the observed period, with the deepest deficits recorded in 2021 and 2022 at approximately US$ -6,400 million. A recovery trend was evident through 2024, where the deficit narrowed to US$ -3,826 million, primarily driven by the rapid expansion of NOPAT. However, this improvement partially reversed in 2025, with economic profit falling to US$ -4,070 million, as the growth in invested capital began to offset the gains in operating profit.
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Net Operating Profit after Taxes (NOPAT)
Linde plc, NOPAT calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Elimination of deferred tax expense. See details »
2 Addition of increase (decrease) in allowance for expected credit losses.
3 Addition of increase (decrease) in cost reduction programs.
4 Addition of increase (decrease) in equity equivalents to net income, Linde plc.
5 2025 Calculation
Interest expense on capitalized operating leases = Operating lease liability × Discount rate
= 866 × 4.46% = 39
6 2025 Calculation
Tax benefit of interest expense = Adjusted interest expense × Statutory income tax rate
= 503 × 21.00% = 106
7 Addition of after taxes interest expense to net income, Linde plc.
8 2025 Calculation
Tax expense (benefit) of investment income = Investment income, before tax × Statutory income tax rate
= 209 × 21.00% = 44
9 Elimination of after taxes investment income.
10 Elimination of discontinued operations.
Net income and net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT) exhibited positive trends over the five-year period. Both metrics demonstrate consistent growth, with a notable acceleration in later years. The difference between net income and NOPAT remains relatively small throughout the period, suggesting limited impact from financing or non-operating activities.
- NOPAT Trend
- NOPAT increased from US$3,800 million in 2021 to US$7,182 million in 2025. The growth was moderate between 2021 and 2022, with an increase of approximately 0.87%. A significant jump occurred between 2022 and 2023, with NOPAT rising to US$6,386 million, representing a growth of approximately 66.7%. This upward trajectory continued from 2023 to 2025, with increases of approximately 6.8% and 12.5% respectively.
- Relationship between Net Income and NOPAT
- The values for net income and NOPAT are closely aligned across all reported years. In 2021, NOPAT was US$3,800 million, compared to net income of US$3,826 million. This difference of US$26 million remained relatively consistent in 2022 (US$3,833 million NOPAT vs. US$4,147 million net income, a difference of US$314 million). The gap widened slightly in 2023 (US$6,386 million NOPAT vs. US$6,199 million net income) and continued to widen in 2024 (US$6,814 million NOPAT vs. US$6,565 million net income) and 2025 (US$7,182 million NOPAT vs. US$6,898 million net income). These differences suggest increasing non-operating items or financing costs as a percentage of overall profitability.
The consistent growth in NOPAT indicates improving core operational profitability. The increasing divergence between NOPAT and net income warrants further investigation to understand the drivers of these differences, potentially related to interest expense, taxes, or other non-operating items. Overall, the trend in NOPAT is positive and suggests strong underlying business performance.
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Cash Operating Taxes
Linde plc, cash operating taxes calculation
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
The provision for income taxes and cash operating taxes both demonstrate an increasing trend over the five-year period. However, the magnitude of increase differs between the two items, and both exhibit some fluctuation in growth rate.
- Provision for Income Taxes
- The provision for income taxes increased from US$1,262 million in 2021 to US$1,814 million in 2023, representing a substantial rise. Growth slowed in 2024 to US$2,002 million, and then decreased slightly to US$1,989 million in 2025. This suggests a potential stabilization or minor reduction in tax obligations after a period of significant growth.
- Cash Operating Taxes
- Cash operating taxes exhibited a consistent increase throughout the period, rising from US$1,537 million in 2021 to US$2,516 million in 2025. The increase from 2021 to 2022 was US$298 million, while the increase from 2024 to 2025 was US$311 million, indicating a relatively consistent absolute increase in cash tax payments. The growth rate, however, decelerated slightly over time.
- Relationship between Provision and Cash Taxes
- Cash operating taxes consistently exceeded the provision for income taxes in each year. The difference between the two items varied between approximately US$275 million and US$527 million. This difference suggests the presence of timing differences between accounting income and taxable income, or potentially deferred tax assets/liabilities. The gap narrowed slightly between 2021 and 2023, then widened again in 2024 and 2025, indicating a changing dynamic in these timing differences.
Overall, the company experienced increasing tax obligations, both from an accounting perspective (provision for income taxes) and a cash flow perspective (cash operating taxes). The consistent difference between the two items warrants further investigation to understand the underlying causes and potential implications for future cash flows and financial reporting.
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Invested Capital
Linde plc, invested capital calculation (financing approach)
US$ in millions
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Addition of capitalized operating leases.
2 Elimination of deferred taxes from assets and liabilities. See details »
3 Addition of allowance for doubtful accounts receivable.
4 Addition of cost reduction programs.
5 Addition of equity equivalents to total Linde plc shareholders’ equity.
6 Removal of accumulated other comprehensive income.
Analysis of the presented financial information reveals trends in the company’s capital structure and invested capital over a five-year period. Total reported debt and leases demonstrate a consistent upward trajectory, while total shareholders’ equity exhibits more fluctuation. Invested capital generally increases throughout the period, though its growth appears to be influenced by both debt and equity movements.
- Debt & Leases
- Total reported debt and leases increased steadily from US$15,216 million in 2021 to US$28,069 million in 2025. The rate of increase accelerated in later years, with a substantial rise between 2024 and 2025. This suggests an increasing reliance on debt financing.
- Shareholders’ Equity
- Total Linde plc shareholders’ equity decreased from US$44,035 million in 2021 to US$38,092 million in 2024, before experiencing a slight increase to US$38,245 million in 2025. This initial decline could be attributed to share repurchases, dividend payments, or unrealized losses. The stabilization in 2025 suggests a potential bottoming out of equity reduction.
- Invested Capital
- Invested capital remained relatively stable between 2021 and 2023, fluctuating around US$72-73 billion. A noticeable increase occurred in 2024, reaching US$74,884 million, and continued into 2025, reaching US$80,195 million. This growth in invested capital correlates with the increasing debt levels, indicating that debt financing is contributing to capital expansion. The slight dip in invested capital between 2021 and 2022 is likely due to the decrease in shareholders’ equity offsetting the increase in debt.
The combined effect of rising debt and fluctuating equity results in a generally increasing trend in invested capital. The company appears to be actively employing debt to fund its operations and growth initiatives, particularly in the later years of the observed period. Further investigation into the specific uses of the increased debt would be beneficial to assess the efficiency and effectiveness of these capital allocation decisions.
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Cost of Capital
Linde plc, cost of capital calculations
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 235,529) | 235,529) | ÷ | 262,183) | = | 0.90 | 0.90 | × | 15.40% | = | 13.83% | ||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | 25,788) | 25,788) | ÷ | 262,183) | = | 0.10 | 0.10 | × | 2.42% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.19% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 866) | 866) | ÷ | 262,183) | = | 0.00 | 0.00 | × | 4.46% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.01% | ||
| Total: | 262,183) | 1.00 | 14.03% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 218,272) | 218,272) | ÷ | 239,715) | = | 0.91 | 0.91 | × | 15.40% | = | 14.02% | ||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | 20,661) | 20,661) | ÷ | 239,715) | = | 0.09 | 0.09 | × | 2.62% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.18% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 782) | 782) | ÷ | 239,715) | = | 0.00 | 0.00 | × | 4.17% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.01% | ||
| Total: | 239,715) | 1.00 | 14.21% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 217,287) | 217,287) | ÷ | 236,279) | = | 0.92 | 0.92 | × | 15.40% | = | 14.16% | ||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | 18,243) | 18,243) | ÷ | 236,279) | = | 0.08 | 0.08 | × | 2.67% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.16% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 749) | 749) | ÷ | 236,279) | = | 0.00 | 0.00 | × | 4.19% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.01% | ||
| Total: | 236,279) | 1.00 | 14.33% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 171,454) | 171,454) | ÷ | 188,442) | = | 0.91 | 0.91 | × | 15.40% | = | 14.01% | ||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | 16,267) | 16,267) | ÷ | 188,442) | = | 0.09 | 0.09 | × | 2.18% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.15% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 721) | 721) | ÷ | 188,442) | = | 0.00 | 0.00 | × | 3.26% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.01% | ||
| Total: | 188,442) | 1.00 | 14.17% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
| Capital (fair value)1 | Weights | Cost of capital | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Equity2 | 148,891) | 148,891) | ÷ | 164,282) | = | 0.91 | 0.91 | × | 15.40% | = | 13.95% | ||
| Debt and finance lease liabilities3 | 14,558) | 14,558) | ÷ | 164,282) | = | 0.09 | 0.09 | × | 1.48% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.10% | ||
| Operating lease liability4 | 833) | 833) | ÷ | 164,282) | = | 0.01 | 0.01 | × | 2.91% × (1 – 21.00%) | = | 0.01% | ||
| Total: | 164,282) | 1.00 | 14.07% | ||||||||||
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 US$ in millions
2 Equity. See details »
3 Debt and finance lease liabilities. See details »
4 Operating lease liability. See details »
Economic Spread Ratio
Linde plc, economic spread ratio calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2025 | Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | (4,070) | (3,826) | (4,136) | (6,416) | (6,409) | |
| Invested capital2 | 80,195) | 74,884) | 73,409) | 72,341) | 72,560) | |
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic spread ratio3 | -5.08% | -5.11% | -5.63% | -8.87% | -8.83% | |
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Spread Ratio, Competitors4 | ||||||
| Sherwin-Williams Co. | -1.75% | -0.73% | -2.98% | -3.23% | -2.78% | |
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 Invested capital. See details »
3 2025 Calculation
Economic spread ratio = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Invested capital
= 100 × -4,070 ÷ 80,195 = -5.08%
4 Click competitor name to see calculations.
The financial performance from 2021 through 2025 is characterized by a consistent negative economic profit, indicating that the returns on invested capital have remained below the cost of capital. However, there is a discernible trend toward narrowing these losses, suggesting an improvement in the efficiency of capital utilization over the five-year period.
- Economic Profit Trends
- Economic profit remained deeply negative in 2021 and 2022, reaching a low of -6,416 million US dollars in 2022. A significant recovery phase began in 2023, where the deficit narrowed to -4,136 million US dollars. This improvement continued into 2024, reaching the period high of -3,826 million US dollars, before experiencing a slight reversal to -4,070 million US dollars in 2025.
- Invested Capital Expansion
- Invested capital exhibited relative stability between 2021 and 2022, hovering around 72,000 million US dollars. Starting in 2023, a consistent upward trajectory is observed, with capital increasing to 73,409 million US dollars in 2023, 74,884 million US dollars in 2024, and peaking at 80,195 million US dollars by the end of 2025. This growth suggests a continued expansion of the asset base.
- Economic Spread Ratio Analysis
- The economic spread ratio mirrors the movement of economic profit, showing a reduction in the gap between the return on capital and the cost of capital. The ratio was most strained in 2021 and 2022, with values of -8.83% and -8.87%, respectively. A marked improvement occurred in 2023, with the ratio shifting to -5.63%, and a further steady climb toward -5.08% by 2025. This trend indicates that while the company is still operating with a negative spread, the intensity of value destruction has decreased.
In summary, the data reveals a period of strategic transition. Despite the growth in invested capital, which typically increases the hurdle for achieving positive economic profit, the entity has successfully reduced its economic deficit and improved its economic spread ratio, moving closer to a break-even point in terms of economic value added.
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Economic Profit Margin
Linde plc, economic profit margin calculation, comparison to benchmarks
| Dec 31, 2025 | Dec 31, 2024 | Dec 31, 2023 | Dec 31, 2022 | Dec 31, 2021 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Selected Financial Data (US$ in millions) | ||||||
| Economic profit1 | (4,070) | (3,826) | (4,136) | (6,416) | (6,409) | |
| Sales | 33,986) | 33,005) | 32,854) | 33,364) | 30,793) | |
| Performance Ratio | ||||||
| Economic profit margin2 | -11.98% | -11.59% | -12.59% | -19.23% | -20.81% | |
| Benchmarks | ||||||
| Economic Profit Margin, Competitors3 | ||||||
| Sherwin-Williams Co. | -1.43% | -0.53% | -2.12% | -2.53% | -2.20% | |
Based on: 10-K (reporting date: 2025-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2024-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2023-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2022-12-31), 10-K (reporting date: 2021-12-31).
1 Economic profit. See details »
2 2025 Calculation
Economic profit margin = 100 × Economic profit ÷ Sales
= 100 × -4,070 ÷ 33,986 = -11.98%
3 Click competitor name to see calculations.
Analysis of the economic performance indicators reveals a persistent state of negative economic profit throughout the observed period, although a trajectory of recovery was evident from 2021 through 2024. While the entity has not yet attained positive economic value added, the scale of the economic loss relative to total revenue has contracted significantly.
- Economic Profit Trends
- Economic profit remained relatively stagnant between 2021 and 2022, with losses marginally increasing from -6,409 million to -6,416 million US$. A notable recovery phase followed, with economic losses narrowing to -4,136 million US$ in 2023 and reaching a period low of -3,826 million US$ in 2024. A slight reversal occurred in 2025, as losses widened to -4,070 million US$.
- Sales Performance
- Revenue experienced an initial increase between 2021 and 2022, rising from 30,793 million to 33,364 million US$. Following this increase, sales remained relatively stable, fluctuating between 32,854 million and 33,986 million US$ from 2023 through 2025. The relative stability in sales indicates that the reduction in economic losses during the middle of the period was not primarily driven by top-line growth.
- Economic Profit Margin Analysis
- The economic profit margin demonstrated a consistent upward trend from -20.81% in 2021 to a high of -11.59% in 2024. The most substantial improvement occurred between 2022 and 2023, where the margin improved by 6.64 percentage points. In 2025, the margin slightly regressed to -11.98%, aligning with the increase in absolute economic losses.
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